我们要讨论的第一个问题是 The first question we want to discuss has to do
我是否可能幸免一死 with the possibility of my surviving my death.
死后能否继续活着 Is there life after death?
是否有可能 Is there a possibility that
死后我依然存在 或是我能幸免于死 I might still exist or survive after my death?
乍看之下...实际上 Now at first glance...and in fact,
只有深入考虑才能得出真相 I think, at second glance it's going to turn out to be true--
在回答这个问题前 you might think that the answer to this question
需要先弄清楚两点 would depend on two basic issues.
我能幸免于死吗 Do I survive my death?
我们能幸免于死吗 Do we survive our deaths?
首先 You think, the first thing
我们要明白人究竟是什么 we have to get clear on is well what am I?
人究竟是什么生物 What kind of a thing am I?
总的来说 Or generalizing,
什么才能称作人 what kind of thing is a person?
我们是由什么组成的 What are we made of?
我们的组成部分是什么 What are our parts?
在回答"我是否能够幸存" It seems plausible to think
这个问题之前 that before we could answer the question,
我们需仔细思考 "Do I survive?"
我们得知道"我"是如何形成的 we need to know how I'm built.
那么首先我们 And so the first thing
需要花一点时间 we're going to spend a fair bit of time
搞清楚人是什么 on is trying to get clear on what's a person?
人的基本构造是什么 What are the fundamental building blocks of a person?
第二个你要 The second question that you might think
弄清楚的问题是 we'd want to get clear on is,
活着的概念是什么 "What's the idea, or what's the concept, of surviving?"
在探讨"我是否能够幸存"之前 Before we ask, "Do I survive?"
我们要搞清楚"我是什么" we need to get clear on "What am I?"
"活着又是什么" and "What is it to survive?"
未来的我又是什么样的呢 What is it for something that exists in the future to be me?
这个问题 Now this question can be
可以作为哲学问题来讨论 discussed philosophically in quite general terms.
同一性的持存本质是什么 What's the nature of persistence of identity over time?
由于我们对我们这种生物十分感兴趣 But since we're especially interested in beings like us,
也就是人类 这个话题 people, this topic,
属于同一性话题下的分支问题 this sub-specialized version of the question of identity,
通常会放在某话题的标题下讨论 gets discussed under the rubric of the topic,
也就是个人同一性 personal identity.
什么是个人同一性的关键 本质或基础 What's the key or the nature or the basis of personal identity?
或者说 As we might put it:
现在的我 What is it for somebody
和下周在这里的我又有什么不同 who's here next week to be the same person as me?
什么是个人同一性 What's the nature of personal identity?
正如我所说 起初 So, as I say, at first glance
你只是想弄清楚这个答案 you might think to get clear on the answer,
我究竟能否幸免一死 "Do I or might I or could I survive my death?"
我们要知道 "我"是什么 we need to know, what am I?
人是什么 What's a person?
一方面要搞清形而上学中 What's the metaphysical composition of people,
人的构造是什么 on the one hand?
同时还要弄清同一性及 And we need to get clear on the nature of identity
持存的本质 具体说来就是 or persistence or, more specifically,
个人同一性 personal identity.
如果想深入了解这个话题 Now as I say, I believe that when push comes to shove,
就必须弄清楚这两个问题 we do need to get clear about both of those questions
这就是头几周课的主要内容 and so that's going to take the first several weeks of the class.
我们会花两周的时间讨论 We're going to spend a couple of weeks talking about,
人是什么 "What's a person?"
然后再用几周时间 And then we're going to spend several weeks,
至少一周 or at least a week or so,
讨论个人同一性的问题 talking about the nature of personal identity.
在我们开始之前 But before we can even get started,
还有一个问题 there's a question,
这是所有问题的核心内容 really an objection to the whole enterprise.
我们需要花很多时间 So we're about to spend a lot of time
去谈论这个哲学问题 asking the philosophical question:
死后能否继续活着 Is there life after death?
死后是否还有活的可能性 Could there be life after death?
我能幸免一死吗 Might I survive my death?
哲学上对此有反驳 But there's a philosophical objection to the entire question.
反驳的观点相当简单 And the objection is fairly simple.
它认为这个问题本身就是错误的 It says the whole question is misconceived.
是在混淆概念 一旦弄清了混淆的地方 It's based on a confusion. Once we see the confusion,
这个问题就好回答了 we can see what the answer to our question is.
我能幸存于一死吗 Could I survive my death?
答案肯定是 The answer has got to be--
反驳的人会说 this is what the objection says--
答案当然是不会 the answer has got to be, obviously not.
这就是否定的说法 All right, so here's the objection.
我想说你们首先 I should mention that the very first reading
要阅读的是 that you're going to be
杰·罗森伯格所写的文章 doing is a couple of pages from Jay Rosenberg,
一个当代哲学家 a contemporary philosopher.
他给出了其反驳方的观点 He gives us a version of this objection.
我和你们说说其中的一个观点 So I'll give you one version.
你们可以在书上看到第二种观点 You'll have another version in your readings.
大致意思是 The objection basically says:
我们所说的"人死了"是什么意思 What does it mean to say that somebody's died?
我们问的是 死后能否继续活着 We're asking, "Is there life after death?"
怎么理解一个人已经死了 What does it mean to say that somebody has died?
正常的理解是死亡是 Well a natural definition of death
生命的终结 might be something like the end of life.
那么 如果这是对的 那试问 So then, if that's right, then to ask,
死后能否继续活着 也就是在问 "Is there life after death?" Is just asking,
生命结束后是否还有生命 "Is there life after the end of life?"
这样问题就显而易见了 The answer to that ought to be pretty obvious.
很明显 答案是否定的 Well, obviously, the answer to that is no.
再换个问法 如果生命已经消逝了 After all, if we're saying once you've run out of life,
是否还有生命呢 is there any more life?
好的 这就像是在问 Well, duh! That's like asking,
我把盘子里的东西吃光了 when I've eaten up all the food on my plate,
盘子里是否还有东西 is there any food left on my plate?
或者电影剧终以后还会放什么 Or what happens in the movie after the movie ends?
这是些很愚蠢的问题 These are stupid questions,
因为一旦你明白了他们的问题 because once you understand what they're asking,
答案就在其中 一切简单明了 the answer is just built in. It follows trivially.
因此虽然这看起来 So although it has seemed
这是个老生常谈的问题 to people over the ages that the question,
但"死后能否继续活着" "Is there life after death?"
却是哲学里最神秘 is one of the great mysteries,
最值得思考的问题 one of the great philosophical things to ponder,
反驳认为这只是种假想 the objection says that's a kind of illusion.
事实上 只要你想一想 In fact, once you think about it,
不用太久 and not all that long,
你就会知道答案是否定的 you can see the answer's got to be no.
死后不可能有轮回 There couldn't possibly be life after death.
死后不可能再有新的生命诞生 There couldn't possibly be life after the end of life.
或者再换一种稍微不同的方式问 Or suppose we ask the question in a slightly different way.
我能幸免一死吗 Might I survive my death?
幸免这个词要怎么理解 Well what does the word "Survive" Mean?
很好 幸免就是我们说的 Well, survive is something like we say
某个人是幸存者 that somebody's a survivor
如果出现惨剧他们没死 if something's happened and they haven't died.
他们仍然活着 当发生车祸的时候 They're still alive. When there's a car accident,
你说 谁死了 谁幸存了 you ask, so-and-so died, so-and-so survived.
这个人幸存了 This person survived.
说他们幸存下来 To say that they survived
是指他们还活着 is just saying that they're still alive.
所以我能活过来吗 So, "Might I survive my death?"
等同于 我能继续活下去么 is like asking, "Might I still be alive after"
那么什么是死亡 死亡是生命的终结 well what's death? Death is the end of life.
因此 我的生命停止了我还能活吗 So..."Might I still be alive after I've stopped living?
我会成为那个幸存者吗 Might I be one of the people who didn't die when I died?"
答案当然是 Gosh, the answer to that is, again,
不可能 你不可能死后逃生 duh! No. You couldn't possibly survive your death,
这是毋庸置疑的 given the very definition.
这让我想起 It should remind us of--
一个你们可能听过的笑话 at least it reminds me of this joke that you probably told.
小时候听到时估计会觉得让人很疯狂 It seemed hysterical when you were seven.
飞机刚好 The plane crashes exactly
在加拿大和美国的边界上坠毁 on the border of Canada and the United States.
刚好在边界上面 Exactly on the border.
到处都是死人 There's dead people everywhere.
他们该把幸存者埋在哪儿呢 Where do they bury the survivors?
答案是 他们不埋幸存者 The answer is: You don't bury the survivors.
你还小 所以你说 我不知道 So when you're seven you think, "I don't know.
他们会葬在加拿大 Do they bury them in Canada?
还是美国呢 Do they bury them in America?"
答案是 你不需要埋葬幸存者 The answer is: You don't bury the survivors,
因为幸存者就是那些还没死的人 because survivors are people that haven't yet died.
所以 我能从死亡中幸存下来么 就成了 So, "Can I survive my death?" Is like asking,
我死了之后还能活着吗 "Could I not have yet died after died "
答案很明显 The answer is, of course,
既然你死了那就是死了 you have to have died if you died
没能幸存下来就是死了 and you haven't survived if you've died.
因此这个问题根本是无稽之谈 So the question can't even get off the ground.
这至少是反驳者的观点 That, at least, is how the objection goes.
我现在不是轻视这些反驳 Now I don't mean to be utterly dismissive of the objection.
否则我也不会花这些时间去阐述它 That's why I spent a couple of minutes trying to spell it out.
但是我想到了一个回应的方式 But I think there's a way to respond to it.
我们要更清楚地知道 We just have to get clearer about
我们究竟问的是什么问题 what precisely the question is that we're trying to ask.
罗森伯格也在试图搞清楚这个问题 This is something that Rosenberg tries to get clear on as well.
我正尝试 So here's my attempt to
让这两个问题变得更准确 make the question both a bit more precise,
这是个开放性的问题 and a question that's an open question.
一个可以合理提出的问题 A question we can legitimately raise.
你们将会多次在这门课上 Well, now as you will hear on several occasions
听到我这些话 over the course of the semester,
我是一个哲学家 I'm a philosopher.
也就是说我不是很懂自然科学 What that means is I don't really know a whole lot of facts.
我会说一下我这个门外汉对此的理解 So I'm about to tell you a story where I wish I knew the facts.
我不懂这些 如果真要讲这些 I don't know the facts. If I could really do it right,
可以打开门请一个客座生理学家进来 I'd now open the door and bring in our guest physiologist,
他会讲一些理论 who would then provide the facts
对于我来说...会觉得很厌烦 that I'm--what I'm about to go is "Blah, blah, blah."
如果我们请来生理学家 But we have the physiologist come in
他会告诉我们一些知识 and he'd actually tell us these things.
我根本不懂 也不认识什么生理学家 I don't know them. I don't have that person.
但谈到一个人死后身体会发生什么变化 But take a look at what happens when a body dies.
毋庸置疑 Now, no doubt,
杀一个人的办法很多 you can kill people in a lot of different ways.
你可以下毒或是勒死他们 You can poison them, you can strangle them,
你可以朝他心脏开一枪 you can shoot them in the heart.
不同的手段导致死亡的方式不同 The causal paths that result in death may start different,
但是我认为有一点是相同的 but I presume that they converge
你的死亡伴随着这一系列的事情发生 and you end up having a set of events take place.
都是些什么事呢 Now what are those events?
事实上我对这方面不是很了解 This is exactly where I don't really know the details,
我只能认为是 but I take it it's something like:
不论最初的死亡原因是什么 because of whatever the original input was,
最后血液不再流动 eventually the blood's no longer circulating
氧气不能输送到全身 and oxygen isn't making its way around the body.
导致大脑变得缺氧 So the brain becomes oxygen-starved.
由于细胞中缺少氧气 Because of the lack of oxygen getting to the cells,
所以细胞不能完成 the cells are no longer able to carry on
它们的各种新陈代谢活动 their various metabolic processes.
因此 Because of this,
他们不能修复各种损伤 they can't repair the various kinds of damage they need,
或者生成所需的氨基酸蛋白质 or create the amino acids and proteins they need.
当细胞开始衰退 So as decay begins to set in
细胞组织开始损坏 and the cell structures begin to break down,
它们不能像正常的细胞一样修复 they don't get repaired as they would normally do,
结果就是 and so eventually have
重要的细胞组织衰竭了 瞬间 breakdown of the crucial cell structure and boom,
肉体死亡了 我想说 the body's dead. Now as I say,
我不是很确定这个是不是真的 I don't really know whether that's accurate,
刚才讲的那个小故事是不是真的 the little rough story I just told,
但是有些类似的故事就可能是真的 but some story like that is probably right.
从典型的哲学观点来看 And in typical philosophical fashion,
我已经把整个过程画在了黑板上 I've drawn that story for you up here on the board.
由于我不知道某些具体的生理过程 So the events that I don't really know the details of,
我们可以叫它B1 B2 B3一直到Bn we can just call B1, B2, B3, up through Bn.
在B1之前 你的身体还在运作 Before B1 begins, you've got the body working,
正常运作 也就是机体上的呼吸 functioning, in its bodily way--respirating,
复制细胞 诸如此类 reproducing the cells, and so forth and so on.
在这个过程的最后 也就是Bn 身体死亡了 And at the end of the process, by Bn, the body's dead.
B是指身体 B1到Bn B for bodily. B1 through Bn;
这就是死亡的过程 至少 that's what death is. At least,
这是身体上的死亡 that's what death of the body is.
就像我说的 这就是一些 As I say, it's the sort of thing
医学院的人 that somebody from the medical school
生物学家或生理学家 or a biologist or a physiologist
向我们描述的死亡 or something could describe for us.
然而问题又来了 So here's the question then.
假设我们叫这个过程 "肉体死亡" Suppose we call that process "Death of the body."
把这些发生在最后阶段的事称做 Call what has occurred by the end of that sequence of events,
肉体死亡 "Bodily death."
现在我们仍然可以继续讨论 Now here's a question that we can still ask,
至少看起来我们可以继续探讨 at least it looks as though we can still ask it.
我是否有可能 Might I, or do I,
在我的肉体死后一直存在 still exist after the death of my body?
我能否在肉体死亡后继续存在 Might I still exist after bodily death?
我不是想说我们 I don't mean to suggest in any way
一定可以找到这个答案 that we yet know the answer to that question,
但至少这是个我们 but at least that's a question
可以合理提出地问题 that it seems as though we can coherently raise.
这个问题没有明显的矛盾 There's no obvious contradiction in asking:
我的肉体死后我是否还能存在 Might I still exist after the death of my body?
答案可能是否定的 The answer could turn out to be no.
但它不是绝对否定的 But at least it's not obviously no.
如果答案是否定的 If the answer turns out to be no,
它将需要更有力的论据 it's going to take some sustained argument
去证明出个所以然 to settle it one way or the other.
这个答案也许是肯定的 The answer could turn out to be yes,
我们都知道这一点 for all we know at this point.
这又带回到我们的另一个思考 This just brings us back to the thought
我是否有可能 that whether or not I
在我死后一直存在 could still exist after the death of my body
这取决于另一个问题"我是谁" 待会 looks like it should depend on what I am. So in a minute,
我会谈到这个问题 that's the question that I'm going to turn to.
但是老是去问"我有没有可能 But it's a bit cumbersome to constantly be asking:
在死后依然存在"会让人觉得很厌烦 Might I still exist after the death of my body?
其实没什么的 So no harm is done,
一但我们证实了我们 once we've clarified the question
试图想要解决的问题 that we're trying to ask,
如果把这个问题用术语或行话简化 if we summarize that question in a bit of a jargon or slogan.
我们与其说 We say, instead of asking:
我会幸存吗 Might I survive?
我能否在死后继续存在 Might I continue to exist after the death of my body?
还不如这样说 you might put it this way.
简单说来就是 You might say for short:
我能从肉体死亡里幸存下来吗 Will I survive the death of my body?
这样说也没关系 No harm done.
我能从死亡中幸免吗 Will I survive my death?
因为我们刚刚明确指出 Because what we were just stipulating we mean
在这里所说的死亡 when we talk about my death in the context of this question
指的是肉体的死亡 is the death of my body. No harm done.
我们能说的简明些 We can just say for short:
我能否幸免一死 Will I survive my death or might I survive my death?
就此而言 For that matter,
我们再问一个问题也没关系 no serious harm done if we ask:
死后能否继续活着 Is there life after death?
只要我们清楚 As long as we understand that
我们问的不是肉体里是否有生命这个问题 what we're not asking about there is life of my body.
就像另一习惯问法 Just another familiar way of trying to ask:
我死后还在世吗 Will I still be around after my death?
我死后还存在吗 Will I still exist after my death?
所以我认为这是一个完全合理的问题 So I think there's a perfectly legitimate question
也是我们准备讨论的问题 and that's the question we now want to turn to.
如我所讲 似乎要回答这个问题 As I said, it looks as though to answer the question,
就得回答"肉体死后我能否继续存在" "Could I continue to exist after the death of my body?"
"死后能否继续活着" "Is there life after death?"
"死后我能否幸存" "Could I survive my death?"
等等这些问题 for short...to answer that question,
我们需要先清楚以下问题 we need to get clearer about:
我究竟是什么东西 What exactly is it for something to be me?
那是未来两周我们着重讨论的问题 That's a question we'll turn to in a couple of weeks.
首先 我们先要清楚 我是什么 First, we've got to get clearer about: What am I?
我是什么样的实体 What kind of an entity am I?
我是什么组成的 在哲学术语里 What am I made of? In philosophical jargon,
这是个哲学问题 this is a question from metaphysics.
所以我们在讨论的是一个哲学问题 So we're asking the metaphysical question:
人是一种什么样的东西 What kind of a thing is a person?
这似乎可以理解成 It seems plausible to think
一个人的肉体死亡后 that whether or not a person can survive
能否幸存或继续存在 or continue to exist after the death of his or her body
是取决于他的构造 should depend on how he's built,
他的组成部分 what he's made of,
他或她各部分的构件 what his or her parts are.
让我简述一下该问题的两个基本观点 So, let me sketch for you two basic positions on this question.
什么是人? What is a person?
两个基本观点 Two basic positions.
他们都是...我想大家都十分熟悉 They're both, I imagine, fairly familiar.
我们要做的是选择其中之一 What we're going to have to do is try to decide between them.
它们不是哲学问题上 They're not the only possible positions
关于人类构造的唯一观点 on the question of the metaphysics of the person.
但我想 它们是 But they're, I think,
两个最突出的观点 the two most prominent positions
并且绝对是 and definitely the ones
在我们解答问题上值得严肃对待的观点 most worth taking seriously for our purposes.
第一个可能的观点是这样的 So, first possible position is this.
人可能是肉体和其他某物的结合体 A person is a combination of a body and something else
心灵 a mind.
第一个观点中我们需要讨论的 But the crucial thing about this first view
至关重要的问题是 that we want to talk about is
心灵被认为是与肉体区分开来 that the mind is thought of as something separate from,
截然不同的东西 and distinct from, the body.
用一个较为通俗的词表述 它是灵魂 To use a common enough word, it's a soul.
人是 或人有 So people are, or people have,
或者说人是由肉体和灵魂组成 or people consist of, bodies and souls.
如我所说灵魂是与肉体截然不同的某物 The soul is something, as I say, distinct from the body.
我想大家都已经了解了肉体 I take it the idea of the body is a familiar one.
它是由一块块皮肤 骨骼和肌肉组成 It's this lump of flesh and bone and muscle
它正坐在你们的面前 并且 that's sitting here in front of you and
你们中的每一个人都被这些肉体所牵制 that each one of you sort of drags around with you.
这是一种我们可以称重 It's the sort of thing that we can put on a scale
可被棍打 可被生物学家研究的东西 and prod with a stick and the biologists can study,
想必是由不计其数的分子 presumably made up of various kinds of molecules,
原子等构成 于是我们有了肉体 atoms and so forth. So we've got the body.
但是在第一个观点中 But on this first view,
仍然有不是肉体的部分 we also have something that's not body.
一个不是由物质实体构成的东西 Something that's not a material object.
一个不是由分子原子构成的某物 Something that's not composed of molecules and atoms.
它是灵魂 它是意识 It's a soul. It's the house of,
思想 也许是人格的 or the seat of, or the basis of,
归属 所在地或者说是基础 consciousness and thinking, perhaps personality.
但是这个观点的关键之处在于 But the crucial point for this view is
从哲学角度对心灵的恰当理解 that the proper metaphysical understanding of the mind
必须是在非物理的条件下去思考的 is to think of it in nonphysical terms,
非物质的条件 nonmaterial terms.
这是第一个基本观点 That, as I say, is the first basic view.
我将要更详细地谈那个观点 I'm going to say more about that view,
更多地介绍那个观点 a fair bit more about that view,
这也是接下来两周里的内容 over the next couple of weeks.
首先 让我简述一下另一个基本观点 First, let me sketch the other basic view.
第一个观点我们把它称作"二元论" So this first view we can call "The dualist view."
之所以是二元论 Dualist, of course,
因为它由两个基本组成部分 because there's two basic components--
肉体和灵魂 the body and the soul.
尽管我偶尔会提到 Although I may occasionally slip,
但我仍很少用"灵魂"这个词语 I'm going to try to preserve the word "Soul."
当我用"灵魂"这个词时 When I use the word "Soul,"
我会采用二元论思路 因为他们认为 I'm going to have in mind this dualist view according to
灵魂是非物质 非物理的 which the soul is something immaterial, nonphysical.
而其他的一些东西... Some other kind...
比如肉体就是物质实体 the body is a material substance.
灵魂是非物质存在 The soul is an immaterial substance.
这是二元论观点 That's the dualist view.
另一个观点 The alternative view
我们就不再考虑二元论 而是一元论 that we're going to consider is not dualist, but monist.
一元论认为只有一个基本 It says there's one basic
且唯一基本存在的东西 kind of thing and only one basic kind of thing.
那就是肉体 那么究竟什么是人呢 There are bodies. So what's a person?
人只不过是一种物质实体 A person is just a certain kind of material object.
人当然是肉体 A person is just a body. Of course,
一个非常不错的物质实体 it's a very fancy material object.
一个十分神奇的物质实体 It's a very amazing material object.
这就是第二个观点所要阐述的内容 That's what this second view says.
人这个肉体可以做 The person is a body that can do things
很多其他物质实体不能做的事 that most other material objects can't do.
所以一元论观点 So on the monist view--
我们称作其为"物理主义" which we'll call "Physicalism,"
因为它认为人只不过 because it says that what people just are,
是个物理对象 物理主义认为 are these physical objects--on the physicalist view,
人只是可以...你能举出很多例子 a person is just a body that can...you fill in the blank.
你可以说出我们能做的很多事 说话 You point out the kinds of things that we can do. We can talk.
思考 唱歌 We can think. We can sing.
我们可以写诗 We can write poetry.
可以彼此相爱 We can fall in love.
可以感到害怕 We can be afraid.
可以制定计划 We can make plans.
可以探寻宇宙的奥秘 We can discover things about the universe.
根据物理主义的观点 According to the physicalist view,
人是一个可以做以下事情的肉体 a person is just a body that can do all of those things:
可以思考 可以理性 can reflect, can be rational,
可以与人交流 可以制定计划 can communicate, can make plans,
可以彼此相爱 可以写诗 can fall in love, can write poetry.
这就是物理主义的观点 That's the physicalist view.
如我所讲 我们已经得到了两个基本观点 As I say, we've got two basic positions.
二元论认为 人由肉体和灵魂组成 There's the dualist view--people are bodies and souls.
而物理主义 And there's the physicalist view,
认为人没有灵魂 according to which there are no souls.
没有这样的非物质实体存在 There are no immaterial objects like that.
人只是肉体 There are only bodies,
正如你我都有正常的身体功能 though when you've got a functioning body like ours,
所以物理主义认为 so the physicalist says,
这些肉体能做出一些相当厉害的事情 these bodies can do some pretty amazing things.
我们都知道人类能做出那样的事 The kind of things that we all know people can do.
两个基本观点 Two basic views.
从逻辑角度而言 From a logical point of view,
我想你们可能会持有第三种观点 I suppose you might have a third possible view.
如果一元论认为人只有肉体 If we've got the monist who says there's bodies
没有灵魂 but there's no souls,
你也能猜想有些人会说 you could imagine somebody who says
人只有灵魂没有肉体 there are souls but there are no bodies.
这个观点估计是从人只有心灵 This would roughly be a view according to which there are minds,
而不是物理对象的观点出发的 but there aren't really physical objects.
物理对象只是一种幻觉 Physical objects are a kind of illusion,
我们深陷这种幻觉之中 perhaps, that we fall into.
或是把它们当作物理对象 Or thinking about them in materialistic terms
本身就是种混淆或是错误 might be greatly confused or mistaken.
这个观点在哲学里被称作唯心主义 This view is sometimes known in philosophy as idealism:
所有存在的事物都是心灵和思想 all that exists, are minds and their ideas.
物理对象不过是被当作 Physical objects is just a way of talking about
理念 心灵或是其他的一些东西罢了 the ideas the mind has or something like that.
唯心主义这个观点 Idealism is a position
在哲学史上占据了很长一段时间 that's got a very long history in philosophy
并且值得我们花几节课 and for many classes would be worth
时间用心解读这个观点 taking a fair bit of time to consider more carefully.
但就我们的目标而言 But for our purposes,
它与我们讨论的话题并不相关 I think it's not a contender.
所以我将把它置于一边 So I'm just going to put it aside.
我将要说的观点... The positions that I'm going to...
当然还有其他观点 and there are other possibilities as well.
有一些观点认为 There are views where mind
心灵和肉体是审视同一 and body are just two different ways
现实基础的截然不同的方式 of looking at the same underlying reality
这种现实基础既非肉体也非心智 where the underlying reality is neither physical nor mental.
此观点也值得在哲学课程中认真讨论 That view's also worth taking seriously in a metaphysics class,
但就我们的目标而言 but for our purposes,
我仅仅只是提及它 并将其搁置一边 I mention it and put it aside.
我们将要关注的两种观点是 The two views we are going to focus on are,
一个是二元论 on the one hand, the dualist view-
人们既有肉体亦有灵魂 people have souls as well as bodies--
另一个是物理主义 and the physicalist view--
我们所拥有的 我们所存在的 只是肉体而已 all we have, all we are, are bodies.
就二元论观点 我再多说几句 Let me say something more then about the dualist position.
根据二元论 According to the dualist,
心灵是非物质的实体 the mind is this immaterial substance
我们可以用不同的名字称呼它 and we could call it by different names.
我们叫它心灵是完全可以的 No harm would be done if we call it a mind,
我之所以重点强调 though the reason I will typically talk
灵魂是为了 about a soul is to try to
标识出二元论的重要论点 flag the crucial point of the dualist view.
心灵建立在...或仅仅是非物理的东西 The mind is based in, or just is something nonphysical,
非物质的某种东西 something nonmaterial,
我们可以把它称作心灵 也可以叫灵魂 we can call it a mind we can call it a soul
还可以说是精神 we can call it a psyche
但我们一般用灵魂来命名它 we typically try to call it a soul.
一方面 灵魂可以指示和命令身体 the soul can direct and give orders to the body, on the one hand.
另一方面 On the other hand,
身体又能输出指令 the body generates input
使得灵魂能够感知 that eventually gets sensed or felt by the soul.
你拿一根针扎我身体上的肉 You take a pin and you stick it through my flesh of my body
我的灵魂 我的心灵就会意识到疼痛 and I feel pain in my soul, in my mind.
所以这是种双向互动 So, two-way interaction.
但由于我们在说的是哲学 As always with philosophy,
二元论还持有更为复杂的观点 there's more complicated versions of dualism
例如 交互作用对双方都不起作用 where maybe the interaction doesn't work both ways,
但就让我们限制在一个范围内较好 but let's just limit ourselves to good,
保守的 双向互动二元论观点 old-fashioned, two-way interactionist dualism.
所以我的心灵控制我的身体 So my mind controls my body.
我的身体可以通过多种方式影响我的心灵 My body can affect my mind in various ways.
但总的来说 它们依旧是不同的事物 But for all that, they're separate things.
而它们之间仍旧有着紧密的联系 Still there's this very tight connection.
我们有时认为 灵魂在身体内 We sometimes put it: the soul is in the body,
在谈论空间地点时 though talking about spatial
也许会暗示着某种隐喻 locations here may be somewhat metaphorically intended.
但不是我们想的那样 It's not as though we think
只要打开你的身体 that if you start opening up
就能在其中找到一个特定的位置 the body you'd finally find the particular spot.
这就是你灵魂的所在地 Here's the place where the soul is located.
虽然看起来 Though it does seem,
就二元论观点而言 from this dualist perspective,
灵魂是有位置的 as though souls are located,
我可以从这里看到世界 I'm sort of viewing the world from here.
就像你们每个人 Just like each of you is
通过某个特殊位置去观察世界一样 viewing the world from a particular location.
所以你的灵魂是有位置的 So maybe your soul is located,
或多或少 就在你的身体附近 more or less, in the vicinity of your body.
当然 至关重要的一点 Crucial point, of course,
二元论观点的引人之处在于 the attraction of the dualist view,
就我们而言 from our point of view,
如果肉体与灵魂同时存在 is that if there's a soul as well as the body,
而且如果灵魂是非物质 and the soul is something immaterial,
那么当肉体死亡的时候 then when the body dies,
就像之前的B1到Bn的过程 when we have B1 through Bn
直到肉体死亡 and the death of the body occurs.
当Bn结束的时候 So at the end of Bn,
身体停止修复自身 the body stops repairing itself.
肉身开始腐烂 Decay sets in.
我们都知道这很悲伤 We all know the sad story.
蛆虫爬进又爬出 The worms crawl in, the worms crawl out.
到了一日之尽 At the end of the day--
嗯 可能长过一日吧 well it maybe it takes longer than a day--
尸体被分解 the body has decomposed.
是呀 所有这一切都预示着肉体的终结 Yes, all that bespeaks the end of the body.
但如果灵魂是非物质的 But if the soul is something immaterial,
那么它会继续存在 then that could continue to exist,
即便肉体已经被分解殆尽 even after the destruction of the body.
这就是吸引人的地方 That's the attraction,
至少是众多吸引人地方中的一处 at least one of the attractions,
就二元论者的观点而言 of the dualist view.
相信灵魂的存在你就会 The belief in the soul gives you something
相信死后你依然能够存在 to continue to exist after the end of your body.
那么什么是死亡 So what's death?
如果我的灵魂和肉体之间 Well, if normally there's this super tight connection
有着超紧密的联系 between my soul and my body,
那么死亡就是这种联系的终结 death might be the severing of that connection.
由于肉体死亡了 So the body breaks and no
它将不再给灵魂输入指令 longer is able to give input up to the soul.
那么灵魂就再也无法 The soul is no longer able
控制肉体 使其活动了 to control the body and make it move around.
尽管如此 灵魂却依然可能存在 But for all that, the soul might continue to exist.
因此如果我们是二元论者 And so at least the possibility
那么至少我们会非常非常认真地看待 that I'll survive my death is one worth taking very,
我们能幸免一死的可能性 very seriously if we are dualists.
在此观点上有几点事情要指明 A couple of things to point out about this view.
一点是我已经谈论过的 人是一种组合 One is I've been talking as though a person is a combination,
有点儿像灵魂和肉体三明治 kind of a soul and body sandwich.
所以一个人有两种基本构造 So a person has two basic building blocks.
肉体部分和灵魂部分 The bodily part and the soul part.
这说起来很轻松 It's natural to talk that way,
如果我们想要寄托于 but if we want belief in the soul to help us
相信灵魂的存在 hold out the possibility
而让死后能够继续活着有据可依 at least that there might be life after death,
那么我们需要一个严格的说法 then I think we need to actually say that strictly speaking,
不是说一个人是灵魂加肉体 it's not that a person is a soul plus a body.
严格说来 Strictly speaking,
我们得说 人即灵魂 I think we need to say the person just is the soul.
毕竟 如果人是组合体 After all, if the person is the combination,
如果一个人是一对儿组合 if the person is the pair,
灵魂加肉体 那么毁掉肉身 soul plus the body, destroy the body,
你就已经摧毁了这一对儿 you've destroyed the pair.
如果人是这一对儿 If the person is the pair
而这对儿已经不复存在 and the pair no longer exists,
那这人也就不存在了 the person no longer exists.
因此如果我们相信灵魂 So if we want belief in a soul
可以帮助我们在幸免一死的 to help us leave open the door to the possibility
问题上打开一扇窗 that I survive the destruction of my body,
那么必须是肉体不是我的重要组成部分 it had better not be that the body is an essential part of me.
简单点儿 更直白地说 It's simpler, more straightforward to say instead,
我严格的说起来就是个灵魂而已 "What I am strictly speaking is a soul."
只要灵魂不灭 我便存在 As long as the soul exists, I exist.
当然 我的灵魂 我自己 我本人 Of course, my soul, me, I,
与某个特定的肉体有着紧密的联系 have a very tight connection to a particular body.
但仍旧 你可以 原则上讲 But still, you could, in principle,
毁掉我的肉身 却无法摧毁我自己 destroy the body without destroying me.
这么说 我和我所居住的房子 Look, I have a particularly
有着特定的紧密联系 close connection to the house I live in.
即便如此 But for all that,
你可以摧毁我的房屋但无法摧毁我本人 you can destroy my house without destroying me.
所以我认为 So that's I think the position
这应归入二元论者的立场 that we ought to ascribe to the dualist.
一个人 严格来讲 就是灵魂 The person is, strictly speaking, the soul.
灵魂和肉体有着非常亲密的联系 The soul has a very intimate connection with the body,
但是人并不是灵魂加肉体 but the person is not the soul and the body.
人只是灵魂而已 The person is just the soul.
即使灵魂与肉体之间的亲密联系被摧毁 So even if that intimate connection gets destroyed,
人 即灵魂 可以继续存在 the person, the soul, could continue to exist.
需要解决的第二点是 The second point to clear up is
有三种不同的观点 that there's really three
也许能够引起我们的兴趣 different issues that might interest us.
第一 从形而上学的角度讲 One, metaphysically,
肉体和灵魂是截然不同的吗 are bodies and souls distinct?
难道心灵必须得被理解为 Is the mind to be understood in terms of
一种非物质客体 this immaterial object,
也就是灵魂吗 这两种东西是一样的吗 the soul? So are there two kinds of things?
这是第一个问题 That's the first question.
灵魂和肉体是不同的吗 Are souls and bodies distinct?
第二个问题 Second question, though, is:
即使灵魂存在 在肉体被摧毁后 Does the soul, even if it exists,
灵魂是否能存活 survive the destruction of the body?
它有可能幸免于死亡 It could be something separate without surviving.
这就是我一直在说的 如果灵魂存在 That's why I've tried to say if there are souls,
至少这为我们在死后继续活着 at least that opens the door to the possibility
创造了可能性 that we will survive our death.
但这不能保证 But, it doesn't guarantee it,
由于缺乏进一步的论证 because absent further argumentation,
我们无法保证 there's no guarantee that
在肉体死亡后灵魂仍然存活 the soul survives the death of the body.
即使灵魂是独立于肉体的 Even if it's separate,
在肉体被摧毁的同时 it could be that it gets killed at the very same time
它也可能被杀死 or destroyed at the very same time
或彻底摧毁 that the body's being destroyed.
也许当这些物理过程发生时 Maybe when these physical processes,
也就是从B1到Bn B1 through Bn, take place,
它们开始运转 要记住 they set into motion...remember,
毕竟我们是心物交互的二元论者 after all we're interactionist dualists.
有种非常紧密的 There's this very tight
因果关系存在于肉体和思想 causal connection between the body and the mind
灵魂和肉体 and the soul and the body,
或是肉体和灵魂之中 the body and the soul.
就比如当你戳我的身体 Just like when you prick my body,
这种肉体上的过程 that bodily process sets
会引起我灵魂上的反应 up certain things taking place in my soul.
也许当B1到Bn发生时 Maybe when B1 through Bn take place,
我的灵魂产生了另一种过程 they set up some other processes in my soul.
称之为S1到Sn Call them S1 through Sn.
也许是S1到Sn导致了灵魂的毁灭 And maybe S1 through Sn results in the destruction of my soul.
伴随着肉体的死亡 我的灵魂跟着逝去 So simultaneously with my body dying, my soul dies.
好吧 这个画起来有点棘手 Okay, this one's going to be a little bit trickier to draw.
第一部分是 S1 The first part, S1...,
这很容易 Sn that's easy. Sn.
问题是 The question is:
我怎么画灵魂 How do I draw the soul?
我也不太清楚 I don't really know.
根据我们仅有的事实去判断 So the mere fact that we decide,
如果我们最终判定灵魂是存在的 if we do ultimately decide that there is a soul,
它是一种无形的 something nonphysical,
独立的 与肉体截然不同的东西 separate and distinct from the body,
但仍不能保证我们会在肉体死亡后活下来 doesn't guarantee that we survive our physical death.
这将是我们将要谈论的一个独立问题 That's going to be a separate question we'll have to turn to.
第一个问题将是 The first question's going to be:
灵魂存在吗 Are there any souls?
下一个问题将是 Next question is going to have to be:
如果存在 If there are,
我们有没有很好的理由去相信 do we have any good reason to think that
肉体死亡后灵魂依旧存活 they survive the death of the body?
第三个问题我们也许会感兴趣 Third question that might interest us,
我们肯定会感兴趣 那就是 that does interest us, is this:
如果灵魂活下来 它会活多久 If it survives, how long does it survive?
灵魂是否在我们肉体死亡后继续存在 Does the soul continue to exist after the death of the body?
它是否会永远存在 Does it continue to exist forever?
我们是永生的吗 Are we immortal?
大多数人希望这是真的 Most of us would like that to be true.
我们希望有灵魂那么我们可以长生不死 We want there to be souls so that we can be immortal.
那么问题将变成不仅仅是 And so the question's got to be not only,
灵魂是否独立于肉体 is the soul distinct?
是否能够在我死后幸存 Does it survive the death of my body?
而是灵魂是否会永存 But does it continue to exist forever?
这些问题 Those questions--
请等一下 hang on one second--
这些是柏拉图特别感兴趣的问题 are ones that especially interest Plato.
一周后我们将开始阅读柏拉图的"斐多篇" So in about a week or so we'll start reading Plato's Phaedo.
[文章主要通过苏格拉底与他的两个朋友： 西米阿斯与克贝的谈话证明了灵魂不朽这一命题] The purpose of that dialogue,
该哲学著作中 of that philosophical work,
所有对话的目的 is to argue for the immortality of the soul.
是要论证灵魂不朽 That's a question we'll be turning to.
这个问题我们以后再涉及 Yeah?
你说吧 Great. So the question is this.
很好 问题是这样 If the very idea of soul
如果关于我们正在讨论的 that we're working with here under the dualist picture
观点是建立在二元论的基础上 is the soul as an immaterial substance,
即灵魂是非物质实体 it's not made of ordinary atomic matter.
它并非由一般的原子物质组成 If the soul is immaterial,
如果灵魂是无形的 doesn't it follow automatically, trivially,
是否可以顺理成章地得出 that the soul can't be destroyed by a material process?
灵魂无法被实体过程所摧毁呢 After all, there was death of the body,
毕竟 每个人都会面临死亡 B1 through Bn.
从B1到Bn That's a material process,
这是一个物质过程 a physical process.
物理过程 Doesn't it follow that a soul,
而灵魂这种 an immaterial entity,
无形的实体 can't be destroyed by a material,
是否会遵循这个规律被物质 physical process?
也就是物理过程摧毁呢 That's a great question.
这是个很棒的问题 What I want to say is,
我想说的是 the short answer for now is,
简单的解释为 I don't think it follows automatically.
我不认为可以顺理成章得出结论 It doesn't follow trivially.
或是自然而然得出结论 It may follow.
当然有这个可能 Plato's actually going to give us some arguments
事实上柏拉图会给我们一些 for pretty much that same claim.
相似的论据来证明 Plato's going to argue once we understand
柏拉图会为我们证明 the sort of metaphysical nature of the soul,
一旦我们理解了灵魂的哲学本质 we'll see why it couldn't be destroyed.
我们就会明白为什么不能摧毁灵魂 That's going to take some fancy arguments.
因此会产生一些有趣的争论 The reason I think it doesn't follow trivially is because,
我认为它并非自然地得出结论的原因是 remember, I said we're dealing with interactionist dualism.
记住 我们在和心物交互二元论打交道 We've already admitted that
我们已经承认 bodies are able to affect the soul, right?
肉体是可以影响灵魂的 对吧 The body is having all sorts of
身体可以通过不同的 light bounce off my eyes of various wavelengths.
波长把光线反射进我的眼睛 And because of that my soul is having various visual sensations
所以我的灵魂也有各种各样的视觉 about the number of people in front of me,
比如能看到在我面前的人数 colors, and so forth and so on.
颜色等等诸如此类 I gave the example of pricking my body.
我刚才举了戳我身体的例子 That's a physical process that causes some sorts of
这是一个物理过程 它造成了 changes in the mental processes occurring in my soul.
我灵魂中心灵过程的改变 Once we've admitted that on
一旦我们承认 this kind of dualist picture the material body
在二元论框架下物质的肉体 can influence what happens in the immaterial soul,
可以影响非物质的灵魂 then it doesn't seem that
那么似乎 we have any grounds for shutting the door
我们没有任何理由 to the possibility that the right physical process,
去否认物理过程 也就是从 B1 through Bn, might set up this horrible mental,
从B1到Bn 很可能导致了 soul process, S1 through Sn,
灵魂过程 S1到Sn resulting in the destruction of the soul.
最终走向毁灭的惨剧 It's a possibility.
有这种可能性 It's going to take more arguments
我们还需要更多讨论 to rule it out.
才能否定这个观点 Yeah?
你说吧 Yeah, another great question.
是的 另一个好的提问 The question was:
这个问题是 I said it seems plausible to
我说过我的灵魂 say my soul is located,
极有可能存在于某个位置 more or less, here because I seem to view the world from here.
至少我似乎能从这看到世界 But maybe that's not right.
但这有可能是错误的 Maybe we shouldn't talk about the location of the soul at all.
也许我们压根就不应该讨论灵魂到底在哪 After all, if the soul is an immaterial object,
归根结底 如果灵魂是个非物质的东西 can immaterial objects have locations?
那么一个非物质的东西会有位置吗 I don't know. The short answer is I don't know.
我也不知道 直截了当地说 我不知道 I know very little about
我压根就对 how immaterial objects are supposed to work.
非物质的东西如何运作没什么概念 So although I'm trying to sketch
尽管我在尝试去概述 the dualist position,
二元论的观点 as I explained on Tuesday,
就像我在周二所说的 I don't myself believe in souls.
我自己并不相信灵魂 I don't actually think that the dualist view is correct.
我并不相信二元论的正确性 You might say,
你可能会说 I'll leave that problem--
我会把这个问题 are souls spatially located or not--
"灵魂是否在空间上有它的位置" to be worked out by those who believe in it.
留给那些相信这个理论的人去解决 For our purposes, I think it doesn't really matter.
就我们论题来讲 我觉得这无关紧要 If you want to say souls have a location,
如果你觉得灵魂的确存在于某处 where are they located?
那它们到底在哪 They're located more or less where my body is.
反正他们应该是在我身上的吧 At least, as long as my body's working.
起码在我肉体还活着的时候是这样的 Maybe at death the soul gets liberated
也许在死亡那一刹那灵魂会摆脱 from the body and is able to wander more freely.
肉体的束缚 游荡起来更加自如 Sometimes people talk about, in fact we'll be reading about this,
有时候人们会讨论 我们会读到这些内容 out-of-body experiences.
关于灵魂出窍的事例 And so maybe during those unusual times
也许在某个特定时间 the soul wanders from the body and comes back to it.
灵魂出窍之后 又重回肉身 Or, alternatively,
或者还有可能 maybe the soul doesn't have any location at all.
灵魂压根就不存在于某个特定的位置 Maybe that's just an illusion
也许那种想法就是一个错觉 created by the fact that
因为通过视觉我知道 I'm getting this visual input from my body .
肉体有位置 随之假设灵魂也有位置 My body certainly has a location.
我的肉体当然是存在于空间的某处 Maybe the right way--
也许正确的思路是... imagine somebody who was in a room
想象某个人在一个房间里面 with remote control television setup and so forth and so on.
拿着一个类似于电视遥控器之类的东西 And he's seeing what's happening in Chicago,
他正在观看芝加哥发生的事 even though he's sitting in a room in New Haven.
而他本人却坐在纽黑文的一个房间里 Well, you could understand
这样你就能明白 why he might fall into the trap of thinking of himself as located
他之所以认为自己身处芝加哥 in Chicago with all the visual inputs coming from Chicago.
是因为他的视觉信息来源于芝加哥 So maybe that's how it works with the soul.
也许这正是为什么人们会认为灵魂有位置 We get lulled into thinking that
我们被我们存在的地方 we are where our bodies are.
就是肉体存在的地方所蒙蔽 But that's really a metaphysical illusion.
但这其实只是一个哲学错觉 I don't really know.
其实这我也不太肯定 For our purposes, I think it's not crucial.
就我们的论题来讲 我觉得这些都无关紧要 Though it's a great question,
尽管这个问题很值得研究 but I'm not going to try to pursue it any further.
但我不打算再去深入地探讨它 All right.
好吧 So one question: Is there a soul?
第一个问题 灵魂到底存不存在 Second question: Does it survive the death of our body?
第二个问题 灵魂从肉体死亡中幸免吗 Third question: If it does, does it live forever?
第三个问题 如果能幸免 它能永生吗 Does it continue to exist forever?
它会继续存在直到永远吗 Is the soul immortal?
灵魂是不朽的吗 We will initially think about the first question:
我们将要开始考虑第一个问题 Do we have any good reason to believe in souls at all?
我们到底有没有理由去相信灵魂的存在 And only after a while
接下来不久 will we turn to the second and third question:
我们将会转而讨论第二个和第三个问题 Does it survive and, more particularly,
它能幸免一死 或者 更严格地说 is it immortal?
它是不朽的吗 That's the first basic view about the nature of a person.
这是关于人本质的第一个基本观念 A person has a soul, something immaterial and not a body.
人是有灵魂的 一种超越肉体非物质的东西 I take it that the view is a familiar one.
我觉得这种观念是大家普遍共识的 Many of you probably believe in it.
你们当中许多人可能都相信这种观念 Those of you who don't believe in it have probably,
那些并不相信这一观念的人 at least, been tempted to believe in it.
至少也想要去相信它 I'm sure you all do know people who believe in it.
我肯定你们都认识一些相信这个观点的人 It's a very familiar picture.
这是一个很常见的现象 But, of course,
但是 当然了 the question we're going to have to ask ourselves is:
我们需要扪心自问的是 Is it right?
这种观念是对的吗 Is there reasons to believe it's correct?
我们有理由去相信它的正确性吗 Turn now to the second basic view,
现在我们转而讨论第二个基本观念 the physicalist view,
物理主义观 according to which a person is just a body.
核心思想是人只是个肉体 This is a materialist view.
这是个唯物主义的观念 People are just material objects,
人只是个物质实体 the sorts of things biologists poke and prod and study.
一个生物学可以钻研的东西 It's important...
有个重要的一点... I think this is the crucial point...
我觉得这是最关键的一点 that when we say a person is just a body,
就是当我们说人只是个肉体时 we don't understand that to mean...
我们不知道这意味着... the physicalist doesn't mean that as--
物理主义的意思不是... a person is just any old body.
人只是随随便便的某种肉体 It's not as though there aren't important differences
他们的意思不是不同的物理对象之间 between different physical objects.
没有什么重大区别 Some physical objects
某些物理对象 can do things of a far more
可做的事远远比 interesting sort than other physical objects.
其他物理对象能做的事有趣得多 Here's a piece of chalk.
譬如这有一根粉笔 It's a physical object.
它是个物理对象 It's just a body.
它只是个物质实体[即肉体 下同] What can it do?
它能干什么 Well, not a whole lot.
并不是很多 I can write on the board with it.
我能拿它在黑板上写字 I can break it in two.
我能把它掰成两半 You let go of it, it drops down.
你一松手 它就掉下去了 Not a very interesting physical body.
不是什么有趣的物质实体 Here's a cell phone.
这还有个手机 It's just a body.
它也只是个物质实体 It's not the most interesting physical object in the world,
它虽不是这个世界上最吸引人的物理对象 but it's a whole lot more interesting than a piece of chalk.
但它能干的事比一根粉笔能干的有趣多了 It can do all sorts of things a piece of chalk can't do.
它能干一堆粉笔干不了的事 If the physicalist is right,
假如物理主义是对的 then here's another physical object for you...
那么给你们再举一个物理对象的例子 me, Shelly Kagan.
我 雪莱·卡根 I'm a pretty impressive physical object.
我是个相当了不起的物理对象 Now arrogant as I may be,
虽然我这么说挺自大的 I don't mean to suggest
但我的意思并不是 I'm any more impressive than you guys are.
我比你们这帮人更了不起 Each one of us, according to the physicalist,
我们每一个人 按照物理主义的观点 is just a body that can do some amazing things.
就是能干出某些令人惊叹事情的实体 We are bodies that can think.
我们是会思考的肉体 We are bodies that can plan.
我们是会深谋远虑的肉体 We are bodies that can reason.
我们是会逻辑推理的肉体 We are bodies that can feel.
我们是有感情的肉体 We are bodies that can be afraid
我们是可以感到害怕 and be creative and have dreams and aspirations.
可以创造 拥有梦想和抱负的肉体 We are bodies that can communicate with each other.
我们是可以彼此沟通的肉体 We are bodies that are...
我们是一些 well, here's a word for it:
用一个词可以总结 We're bodies that are people.
我们是被称作人类的肉体 But on the physicalist view,
但是物理主义认为 a person is just a body.
人只是个纯粹的肉体 And that's where we'll take it up next time.
我们把这个话题留到下堂课再来讨论