[耶鲁大学开放课程：心理学导论] 16.A.Person.in.the.World.of.People.Self
接下来两节课 This is going to begin a two-lecture sequence
讲社会心理学，讲我们对自我的看法 on social psychology on how we think about ourselves,
对他人的看法 how we think about other people,
对其他群体的看法 how we think about other groups of people.
我们讲过人类思想的能力 We've talked a lot about the capacities of the human mind
这些能力中包括适应力 and some of these capacities involve adapting
以及应付物质世界的能力 and dealing with the material world.
所以我们要选择食物 So, we have to choose foods,
要寻找方向 we have to navigate around the world,
要认识物件 we have to recognize objects,
要能够理解物理相互作用 we have to be able to understand physical interactions.
但我们进化而来的思想最有趣的地方 But probably the most interesting aspect of our evolved minds
应该是我们理解他人，与他人交往的能力 is our capacity to understand and deal with other people.
我们对别人的行为很感兴趣 We are intensely interested in how other people work.
这是2005年的一条大新闻 The story that was a dominant news story in 2005 was this.
那些没有看到屏幕的同学 And some of you--this--for those of you who aren't seeing the screen,
这条新闻是说安妮斯顿和彼特离婚 is the separation of Jennifer Aniston and Brad Pitt.
我记得我第一次看这新闻时是在哪里 I remember where I was when I first heard about this.
这是一个很有趣的画面，但我们要退后一步想 And it's an interesting sight. Just remember--stepping back.
心理学家要对自然而然的反应提出疑问 As psychologists we have to question the natural.
我们探究那些很常识性的东西 We have to take things that are commonsense and explore them.
事实上，我们很喜欢这样的新闻 And one thing which just happens is, we're fascinated by this stuff.
我们喜欢了解名人的生活 We're fascinated by the lives of celebrities.
我们喜欢知道别人的社交生活 We're fascinated by the social lives of other people.
这是一个很有趣的问题 And it's an interesting question to ask why.
而这其中一个问题就是 And this is one of the questions
我会在这两节课里讲的 which I'm going to deal with in the next couple of lectures
但首先我们来了解社会心理学的理论 but before I get to the theory of social psychology
我想讲一个个体差异 I want to talk about an individual difference.
几周之前我们用了一整节课 So, we devoted a lecture early on--of a couple of weeks ago,
来讲人与人之间的智力与个性差异 to individual differences across people in intelligence and personality.
今天我要讲的个体差异 I want to talk a little bit about an individual difference
是属于社会性的，我会让你们做一个测试 in our social natures and then I want people to do a test
来弄清楚你们在这个测试中处于什么位置 that will explore where you stand on a continuum.
这个测试就是放在你们面前的那张纸 That test is the piece of paper you have in front of you.
没有拿到这张纸的请举手 Anybody who doesn't have it please raise your hand
让教学助理拿一份给你 and one of the teaching fellows will bring it to you.
你们现在还不知道怎么做，所以不用管它 You don't know what to do yet with it so don't worry.
这个测试是Malcolm Gladwell研究出来的 The test was developed actually by Malcolm Gladwell
就写在这位科学作家的书Tipping Point里 who is a science writer--in his wonderful book The Tipping Point.
Gladwell介绍这个测试时 And as he introduces the test,
他描述了米尔格林姆做的另一个实验 Gladwell recounts another experiment done by Stanley Milgram,
后者的服从实验很出名 of course famous for his obedience work
但他还做过很多其他有趣的实验 but he did a lot of interesting things.
他做过的一个经典实验就是他把一个包裹 And one classic study he did was he gave a package
发给在内布拉斯卡州奥马哈市随机选中的160人 to 160 people randomly chosen in Omaha, Nebraska
他叫这些人想办法把包裹… and he asked these people to get the package somehow
这个实验是远在互联网和电子邮件还没出现之前做的 and this was many years ago before the internet, before e-mail
他叫这些人把包裹寄给一个股票经纪 to get the package to a stockbroker
这个人在波顿上班，但住在麻省沙伦市 who worked in Boston but lived in Sharon, Massachusetts.
他发现大部分人都能将包裹寄给这个人 What he found was that most people were able to do it.
当然这些人都不认识他，但他们认识其他人 Nobody, of course, knew this man but they knew people
这些人可能认识其他认识他的人 who might know people who would know this man.
所以大部分人都成功了 So, most people succeeded.
大部分人都能装包裹寄给这个男人 Most people were able to get the packages to this man
这个过程最多经过六度分隔 and it took at maximum six degrees of separation,
著名的六度分隔理论就是这样来的 which is where the famous phrase comes about
这个理论是说人与人之间有六度分隔 that we're all separated from another person by six degrees of separation.
虽然一般来说并非如此 This is not true in general.
这个实验是在美国做的 This was a very--a single experiment done within the United States,
但它揭示了一个很有趣的规律 but the idea is appealing,
人都是通过一连串的人和另一个人有着某种关联 that people are connected to one another via chains of people.
但米尔格林姆一个特别有趣的发现是 But what Milgram found that was particularly interesting was
有一半包裹经过了两个人 that in about half of the cases these packages went through two people.
也就是说如果要划出人们之间的关系 That is, if you plot the relationships between people
例如这个教室里的人 We can take each person in this room,
把互相认识的人用线划出来 find everybody you know and who knows you and draw a line,
如果我们这样做 but if we were to do this
得到的结果不是一个分布均匀的网状图 you wouldn't find an even mesh of wires.
你会发现有些人连的线特别多 Rather, you'd find that some people are clusters.
这些就是Gladwell所说的“连结者” Some people are what Gladwell calls "connectors."
就是航空一样 It's like air traffic.
以前的飞机都是飞往它的所属地 Air traffic used to be everything flew to places local to it
但现在的航空运输是一个由交通枢纽组成的系统 but now there's a system of hubs,
例如飞机会途经芝加哥O'Hare机场或Newark机场 Chicago O'Hare for instance or Newark where planes fly through.
有些人就像这些交通枢纽 Some people are hubs.
有些人就是那种认识很多人的人 Some people are the sort of people who know a lot of people.
这个教室里可能就人这样的人 Some people in this room might be hubs,
要找出来很简单 and it is not impossible to find out.
你们手上的那张纸有250个名字 The piece of paper you have here is 250 names
都是从曼哈顿电话薄里随机挑出来的 chosen randomly from a Manhattan phone book.
这些名字包括各个种族 They capture a range of ethnicities,
来自世界各地，原国藉都不尽相同 different parts of the world, different national origins.
接下来的步骤是 Here's what I'd like you to do.
我会给你们五分钟 And I'll give about five minutes for this.
看这些名字，把认识的圈起来 Go through these names and circle how many people you know.
规矩是 Now, the rules of this are,
你认识的这些人 to know somebody you have to
必须也要认识你 they have to know you back.
所以如果是一个名人 So, if it's a celebrity--Well, here--
这里有个名字叫Johnson one of the names here is Johnson.
我听说过Magic Johnson这个名字 Now, I've heard of Magic Johnson
但Magic Johnson没听说过我 but Magic Johnson has never heard of me,
所以我不能把它圈起来 so I cannot circle it.
但是我们的系主任叫Marcia Johnson On the other hand, our department chair is Marcia Johnson.
她听说过我，所以我可以把它圈起来 She has heard of me, so I could circle it.
大家看，把名字圈起来 Go through and circle it.
把你认识同时认识你的人圈起来 Circle all the people you know who know you.
那些就是和你有联系的人 Those are the people you're connected to.
如果有一个姓你认识的不止一个 If you know more than one person with the same last name,
那就圈两次 circle it twice.
如果你没有这张纸，而又想参加测试的话 If you don't have this piece of paper and you want to participate,
请举起手，让教学助理 please raise your hand and one of the teaching fellows
拿给你 will bring it to you.
我来详细讲解一下 I'm going to talk a little bit more about this
你们一边做，一边听 while people go through this.
人与人之间的联系问题 The issue of connections between people
能让起学术界的兴趣有很多原因，它能让我们 is intellectually interesting for many reasons and might allow us
找出人与人之间的互动有什么一般特征 to develop some generalizations about how people interact.
六度分隔理论后来 The game of Six Degrees of Separation has,
变成了一个著名的电影小游戏 of course, turned into a famous movie trivia thing
整个游戏以Kevin Bacon为中心 revolving around the actor Kevin Bacon,
我想选这个演员是因为他的名字与“separation"押韵 I think chosen just because it rhymes with "separation."
Kevin Bacon六度分隔这个游戏 And the game of "Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon"
是随便挑出一名演员 is played by taking any actor
用电脑计出他通过几度就能和Kavin Bacon连接上 and computing how many steps it would take to get to Kevin Bacon.
这是有些计算机科学家研究出来的 And some computer scientists have developed this.
他们挑出了25万个 They've gone through each of the quarter million actors
IMDb的演员 and actresses on the international movie database
算出他们的“Bacon数“ and computed their "Bacon number."
这个Bacon数就是通过几度 And the Bacon number is the number of steps
他们就能与Kavin Bacon连接上 it takes for them to get to Kevin Bacon.
例如 So for instance,
Ed Asner出还过电影“JFK” Ed Asner was in the movie Change of--"JFK"
和Kevin Bacon一起演的 with Kevin Bacon.
所以Ed Asner的Bacon数为一 So, Ed Asner has a Bacon number of one.
猫王和Ed Asner演过“Change of Habit” Elvis Presley was in the movie "Change of Habit" with Ed Asner
这是他和Kevin Bacon最近的联系了 and that's his closest connection to Kevin Bacon.
所以猫王的Bacon数为二 So, Elvis Presley has a Bacon number of two.
结果发现，这2.5…对不起 It turns out that if you look at the 2.5--sorry,
如果你算一下电影数据库里这25万人 the quarter million people on the movie database and compute their Bacon number,
他们的平均Bacon数为2.8 the average Bacon number is 2.8.
这就是一般人离Kevin Bacon的度数 That's how many steps your average person is away from Kevin Bacon.
你也可以… You could then,
拿任何一个演员来作中心 for any actor or actress,
算出连接性最强的一个 compute the most connected one.
连接性最强的那个 So, the most connected one would be the one
他和这25万演员 for whom the quarter million are,
连接的平均度数最小 on average, the most connected to.
而连接性最强的那个演员 And the answer of the most connected actor or actress
真的很出乎人们的意料 is reasonably surprising.
谁来猜猜看？ Does anybody want to guess?
我先例举几个错误的答案 I'll start you off with the wrong answer
这些都可以在这个网站上找到 and this, by the way, can be found on this web site.
不是John Wayne It's not John Wayne.
John Wayne演过很多电影 John Wayne has been in many movies,
60年里演了180部电影 180 movies, in fact, over sixty years,
但他不是连接性最强的那个 but he isn't well connected at all because mostly
因为他演的都是西部片，接触的都是同一类演员 he was in westerns so we saw the same people over and over again.
梅丽尔斯特里普也不是 Meryl Streep also isn't it
因为很不幸，她只出演好电影 because Meryl Streep has the misfortune of playing only in good movies.
所以她和某些演员没有联系 So, she has no connection with people
例如Adam Sandler和John-Claude Van Damme like Adam Sandler and John-Claude Van Damme.
猜猜看是谁？ Guess. Any guesses?
Christopher Walken，尼古拉斯凯奇 Christopher Walken , Nicholas Cage
Christopher Walken很有可能 Christopher Walken is a good one.
我们来看看，我只认识几个明星的名字 We could look it up. I only know a few names here.
Christopher Walken不是最终胜出者 Christopher Walken is not a finalist.
尼古拉斯凯奇这个答案很有趣 Nicolas Cage is an interesting case.
尼古拉斯凯奇演过好电影吗？ Has Nicolas Cage been in good movies?
我不想… I don't want to get--
我不想又引起争论了 I'm going to get more controversial than I want to.
一个比群众演员强一点的演员 A guy who is one step above an extra.
什么？ Pardon me?
一个比群众演员强一点的演员 A guy who is one step above an extra.
连接性最强的那个人？ The most connected guy?
他应该是二线演员里最好的 He's like a B-list actor at best.
连接性最强的那个人，我想这表明 The most connected guy, and I think this shows
你说得对，那个人就是Rod Steiger that you're right, is Rod Steiger.
他是演艺界有史以来连接性最强的人 He's the most connected actor in the history of acting
并不是因为他演的电影比别人多 because it isn't that he's been in more movies than everybody else.
Michael Caine应该是 Michael Caine has probably been
世界上演的电影最多的人 in the most movies of any person on earth,
但Rod Steiger演过各种各样的电影 but he's [Rod Steiger] been in all sorts of movies.
他演过“码头风云”“炎热的夜晚” He was in "On the Waterfront," "In the Heat of the Night,"
也演过“乌龙抢匪妙事多”这样的大烂片 and really bad movies like "Carpool."
他演过电视剧，犯罪连续剧，惊悚片 He's been in dramas and crime serials, thrillers,
西部片，恐怖片，科幻片，音乐剧 westerns, horror movies, science fiction, musicals.
有些人就像Rod Steiger Now, some people are like Rod Steiger.
这些人在日常生活有接触到很多人 So, some people in their day-to-day lives have many interactions
我们在与别人的接触中了解到 and I think one of the things we know from interacting with people
我们可以把他们与别人区分开来 is we can distinguish them from other people.
有多少同学做完测试了？ How many people have finished their things right now?
好的，我认识系里的一个人 Okay. I know one person in the department
他是我认识的人中连接性最强的人 who is one of the most connected people I know on earth.
如果我想… If I wanted--
如果我很想和Rumsfeld谈谈 If I really had to talk to Rumsfeld,
我就会找这个人 I'd go to this person and say,
“你能帮我联系上Rumsfeld吗？“ "Can you get me in touch with Rumsfeld?"
如果我想把谁弄的精疲力尽 也会问这个人 If I wanted to get somebody whacked, I'd ask this guy.
我也认识系里另一个人 Then I know someone else in the department and,
据我所知，我是她唯一认识的人 as best I know, I'm the only person she knows.
有多少人圈了不到十人的？ So, how many people scores below ten on this?
有多少同学圈了10到20个的？ How many between ten and twenty?
20到30的呢？30到40的呢？ Between twenty and thirty? Thirty and forty?
40到50的呢？50到60？ Between forty and fifty? Fifty and sixty?
有多少同学圈了60个以上的？ How many people scored above sixty?
60个以上的？ Anybody above sixty?
Gladwell在很多地方做过这个测试 Gladwell has done this in a lot of places.
大学学生中的平均结果是21个 The average is twenty-one among a college crowd.
有些人圈了100多个的 Some people score as high as over 100.
通常年纪越大，圈的人就会越多 The older you are, the more--the higher you tend to score,
这是很明显的 maybe obviously,
你在这个国家时间越长，圈的人就越多 not--the longer you've been in the country the higher you tend to score.
通常记者圈得很多，这是很合理的 Journalists tend to score reasonably high,
学术人士则没那么多 academics not so high, and--
Gladwell指出有些人天生就有这个特殊才能 -but what Gladwell points out is some people have the gift.
他们比别人更善于交往 Some people are more social than others
而这个问题又和很多问题有着有趣的联系 and this connects in all sorts of interesting ways.
连接性这个问题是有社会因素的 The issue of connection has social factors
社会学家给出过一个答案 and it's one answer that sociologists give
为什么去耶鲁读大学是好事 for why it's good to go to Yale.
其中一个答案就是 So, one answer is, well,
因为能学到很多知识 because of the great intellectual benefits.
先不论这个理由，我们更实际一点 Put that aside. Let's be more cynical here.
另一个答案是，你能交到有权势的朋友 Another answer is that you develop powerful friends.
这个答案更接近了 And that's closer,
但社会学家给出的有趣答案 but the interesting answer sociologists come to is
并不是你能结交到有权势的朋友 it's not so much you develop powerful friends;
而是你能结交到有权势的相识之人 rather, you develop powerful acquaintances.
通过耶鲁，你能认识很多人 Through Yale you know a lot of people
这些人不一定是亲密的好朋友 and they don't have to be close friends
他们只是相识的人 but they are acquaintances.
社会学家指出，在你生活里很多方面 And sociologists point out that for a lot of aspects of your life,
例如找工作，相识的人很重要，关系很重要 like getting a job, acquaintances matter, connections matter,
你去一个像耶鲁这样的地方建立的关系 and the connections you establish by going to a place
能为你的余生带来好处 like Yale hold you in good stead for the rest of your life,
比这个地方教给你的知识更有好处 above and beyond any intellectual qualities that this place may offer.
这是我们下节课会讲的内容 Here's what we're going to do for the next lecture
半节课，两节 and a half, two lectures.
我们首先会讲自我 We're first going to talk about the self.
然后我们会讲自我与他人 Then we're going to talk about the self and other;
基本上就是我们对自身的看法 basically, differences between how we think of ourselves
和我们对他人的看法之间的差异 and how we think about other people.
然后我们会专门讲 Then we're going to talk exclusively about
我们对他人的看法 how we think about other people
然后我们会讲我们对群体的看法 and then we'll talk about how we think about groups
例如哈佛学生，同性恋者，黑人 like Harvard students or gay people or black people.
我先从我最喜欢的研究发现开始讲 I'll start with my favorite finding of all time
这个发现是关于自我的 and this is about the self.
关于聚光灯效应 And this is about the spotlight effect.
我早上都很匆忙的，因为我有两个孩子 So, my mornings are often rushed because I have two kids.
我起床，有时候忘记调闹钟 So, I get up and sometimes I don't set the alarm
结果起床晚了，我从床上踉跄爬起 and I get up late; I stagger out of bed;
我叫醒孩子，跟仆人打招呼，作准备 I wake the kids; I greet the servants; I get ready;
做早餐 I make breakfast.
然后冲出家门 I run out of the house
大概到了下午三点时，会有人跟我说 and then usually around 3 o'clock somebody points out,
有一次是一个流浪汉 in one case a homeless man,
告诉我，我耳朵上有一团剃须膏 that I have a big glob of shaving cream in my ear or--
因为我剃须时忘了 because I neglected to actually look in the mirror
照镜子 while I shaved.
或者有一次我去参加聚会 Or I have once been to a party
我发现我的衬衫扣错了，扣得很错 and I found my shirt was misaligned, seriously misaligned,
不只是扣错一粒纽扣 not one button but--Anyway,
发生这种事时，我觉得太没面子了 so--and so I feel when this happens I'm very immature.
我觉得像世界末日一样 And I basically feel this is the end of the world,
太丢人了，大家都看到了 this is humiliating and everybody notices.
但问题是 And so the question is,
真正注意到的有几个人？ how many people notice when something happens?
聚光灯效应 And the spotlight effect--Well,
在讲我最喜欢的实验之前 before talking about my favorite experiment ever,
先给大家讲一集”辛普森家族“ there is an episode of "The Simpsons"
这一集就很好地解释了聚光灯效应 that provides a beautiful illustration of the spotlight effect.
也很好地解释了一个心理测试 And then it has a beautiful illustration of psychological testing,
我会很快为大家逐一讲解 so I'll give you them quickly one after the other.
Tom Gilovich，一位社会心理学家 So, Tom Gilovich, a social psychologist,
他对聚光灯效应这个问题很有兴趣 was interested in the question of the spotlight effect,
这个效应是说，当我们穿一件粉色色衬衫去上班 which is when we wear a pink shirt to work,
当我们耳朵上有剃须膏时 shaving cream in our ear or whatever,
我们会系统地高估了 do we systematically overestimate
别人的注意？ how much other people notice?
他做了一系列的实验 He did a series of experiments.
在其中一个实验里，他来到实验对象跟前 And in one experiment what he did was he got in the subjects
标准的基础心理方法，他说 standard Intro Psych drill - and said,
”我想你们明天穿一件T恤“ "I want you to wear a T-shirt for the next day
”上面要有一个图案“ and I want it to have a picture on it,"
他让他们穿上了印有图案的T恤 and he got them to wear T-shirts that had pictures on it
世界上最让人尴尬的图案 that were the most embarrassing pictures that they could have on it.
原来…如果你问别人 It turns out that if you ask people
T恤上印什么图案是最糟糕的 what's the worst picture to have on the T-shirt that you are wearing,
最多人回答的是希特勒和Barry Manilow绑在一起 the number one answer is Hitler tied with Barry Manilow.
T恤上印的最好的图案是 The best pictures to have on your T-shirt
马丁路德金和杰瑞宋飞 are Martin Luther King Jr. and Jerry Seinfeld.
结果发现人们… It turns out that people--
他让这些人过完这一天，然后问他们 And then he had them go about their day and asked them,
”有多少人注意到你的T恤了？“ "How many people noticed your T-shirt?"
然后心理学家 And then the psychologists went around
问别人 and they asked the people,
“你们有多少人注意到这个人的T恤了？” "How many of you noticed this person's T-shirt?"
结果发现他们把注意的人数 And it turned out they got it wrong
高估了一倍 by a factor of about two.
假如，他们说有100个人注意到了 They thought, say, 100 noticed,
但其实只有50个人注意到了 but fifty people noticed.
经过一个又一个的实验 And across study after study after study
Gilovich和他的同事找到了支持聚光灯效应的证据 Gilovich and his colleagues have found support for the spotlight effect,
也就是说，你以为 which is that you believe
别人一直在注意你 that people are noticing you all the time
但其实他们没有 but they aren't.
他们都忙着注意自己 They're busy noticing themselves.
这是一个很有用的理论，大家都应该记住 And this is actually a useful thing to know.
Gilovich之所以对这个问题很感兴趣 Gilovich got interested in this
是因为他对后悔这个心理活动很感兴趣 because he's interested in the psychology of regret.
结果发现，如果你问临终的人 And it turns out that if you actually ask dying people,
或者很老的人 or really old people basically,
“你生命中有什么让你很后悔的？” "What do you regret from your life?"
他们统一后悔的都是没有尝试过的事 they regret the things as a rule that they didn't try.
但当你问他们为什么不尝试时 But when you asked them why they didn't try it
他们的答案往往是“这样做会很傻” the answers tended to be "I would look silly."
但其实很有趣的一个发现是 And it turns out, interesting to know,
人们对别人的注意并没有你想象中的那么强 that people just don't care as much as other people think you are.
你可以这把当成好消息，也可以当成坏消息 You could take that as good news or bad news
但聚光灯并不像我们想的那样，总是照在我们身上 but the spotlight is not on us as much as we think it is.
Gilovich还发现了另一个效应 There's a second effect Gilovich discovers
他称之为“透明效应” called "the transparency effect."
透明效应很有趣 And the transparency effect is quite interesting.
它是说我们以为 The transparency effect is that we believe
自己比实际中更容易看透 that we're more transparent than we are.
我需要请一名同学上来 I need somebody up here
一位认为自己不会撒谎的同学 who thinks that he or she is a bad liar.
我只要你说三句话 Just--I just need you to say three sentences.
我甚至可以让你预先看看是哪些话 I'll even tell you what it is ahead of time.
我会问你三个问题 I'm going to ask you three questions:
“你去过伦敦吗？你有弟弟或妹妹吗？” "Have you been in London? Do you have a younger sibling?"
“你喜欢寿司吗？” and "Do you like sushi?"
我想你回答这些问题 I want you to answer with one of those answers there.
其中一个答案要撒谎 I want you to lie about one of them.
其实同学的任务就是要认出 The task will be for everybody else to recognize
你哪个答案是撒谎的 and guess which one you're lying about.
你想上来吗？好的 Do you want to go up? Yeah.
我写下哪个问题你应该撒谎 And I will even write down which one you should lie on.
这道问题要撒谎，明白吗？ So, I want you to lie as to that number. Okay?
你去过伦敦吗？ Have you ever been in London?
不，我没去过伦敦 No, I have not been in London.
你有弟弟或妹妹吗？ Do you have a younger sibling?
是的，我有 Yes, I have a younger sibling.
你喜欢寿司吗？ Do you like sushi?
不，我不喜欢寿司 No, I do not like sushi.
好的，我们来猜猜 Okay. Let's have a vote.
她其中有一个答案是撒谎的 She was lying about one of them.
谁猜是第一个？ Who votes for one?
谁猜是第二个？ Who votes for two?
谁猜是第三个？ Who votes for three?
第二个和第三个的人数差不多 Pretty much of a tie between two and three.
你可以说出来第几个说谎了 You could say which one you were lying.
第三个 Three.
这个效应有两个方面 The effect--there are two aspects of the effect.
其中一个方面是说人其实很会说谎 One aspect is people are actually quite good at lying.
很少有人会站在这里 It is a rare person who couldn't stand up there
让大家都猜出他们撒了什么谎 and everybody would figure out what they're lying about,
但因为透明效应，我们并不这样觉得 but the transparency effect is we don't feel that way.
我们通常会觉得我们的秘密要泄露出来 We often feel like things bleed out of us
所以人们心里经常会觉得 and so people will systematically overestimate the extent to
别人都发现了他们的秘密 which other people notice their secrets.
概而论之 And this is actually, in general,
这就是为什么有时候我们很难能讲一个故事 why it's sometimes difficult to teach or to tell stories
因为我们总是认为别人什么都猜到了 because we constantly overestimate how much other people know.
我们认为自己很容易被人看透，但其实不是的 We think of ourselves as more transparent than we are.
另一个社会心理现象是自我感觉良好 A second social psychological phenomena is you think you're terrific.
如果我问别人 If I asked people,
“你这学期的心理学导论学到怎么样？” "How well are you doing in Intro Psych this semester?"
我要你相比于其他同学的表现，给自己一个百分数 and I asked you to give yourself a percentage rating relative to the rest of the class,
如果大家都准确地评价自己 then if everybody was accurate,
或者说大家都不偏心于自己 or at least not systematically biased,
那么平均百分数应该是50%的 the number should add up to 50%.
大约有一半同学学得比别人好 Roughly half of you are doing better than average
有一半同学学得比别人差 and roughly half of you are doing worse than average.
但是结果发现 It turns out though that
人们都会过高地高估了自己 people will systematically and dramatically view themselves
认为自己比一般人做得好 view themselves as better than average.
他们认为自己比一般人做得好 They will view themselves as better than average
不管是学生，老师 when asked how good they are as a student, as a teacher,
爱人都一样，尤其是司机 as a lover, and particularly, as a driver.
会开车的人都觉得自己是开车开得很棒 Everybody who drives thinks that he or she is a wonderful driver.
这个就叫“乌比冈湖效应” This has been called the "Lake Wobegon effect"
名字源于Garrison Keillor的一个故事 based on Garrison Keillor's story about a place
故事里有个地方的小孩子比一般孩子都优秀 where all the children are above average.
心理学上的乌比冈效应是说人都会 And the Lake Wobegon effect in psychology involves a systematic
偏心地认为自己比一般人优秀 bias to see ourselves as better than average.
但心理学家还不知道 What psychologists don't really know
为什么乌比冈效应会存在 is why the Lake Wobegon effect exists,
目前有几个假设 and there are a couple of proposals.
其中一个说这是由我们得到的评价的性质决定的 One is the nature of the feedback we get.
在你生活中很多时候，通常你收到评价 So, for a lot of aspects of your life you only get feedback
都是你做得好，或者你做了好事时 when you're good, when you do something good.
在一个正常，高效，健康快乐的环境里 In a normal, productive, healthy, happy environment,
人们不会大声跟你说你做得有多差 people don't scream at you about how bad you're doing
但他们会称赞你做得很好 but they compliment how good you are
因而导致人们在某些方面 and that could lead to an inflated self-esteem
自我评价膨胀 on the part of people in certain domains.
另一个假设是说，好的标准各有不同 Another possibility is there's different criteria for goodness.
例如，拿司机来说 For a driver, for instance,
当我叫人们给自己的开车技术打个分时 when I ask you to rank how good you are as a driver,
人们通常会认为 what people often do is they think--they say,
“我比一般人好” "I'm better than average,"
但其实他们只看到了开车的一个方面 but what they do is they focus on one aspect of their driving.
有些人可能会说 So, some of you might say,
“我平行泊车技术很好 "Hey, I'm just a great parallel parker
”所以我是个好司机“ so I'm a great driver."
有人可能会说 Others might say,
”我很小心，我是个好司机“ "I'm very careful, great driver."
”我敢冒别人不敢冒的险，我是个好司机“ "I take chances no one else will--great driver,"
但除此以外 but above and beyond that
但似乎存在着一个心理原因存在于这个效应 there does seem to be a psychological effect manifested here
和另外的效应中 and manifested elsewhere,
那就是自我感觉良好的动机 which is a motivation to feel good about yourself.
你觉得自己很重要 You think you're important,
所以就有聚光灯效应存在 which is why the spotlight effect exists.
你觉得别人看出了你的想法 You think your thoughts bleed out,
所以就有透明效应存在 which is why the transparency effect exists.
除了这些效应以外 But above and beyond that,
一个心智正常健康的人会觉得自己很棒 in a normal, healthy mind you think you're terrific.
这体现在各种现象中 And so, this shows up in all sorts of ways.
还体现在一种称为”自我服务偏向“的现象中 It shows up as well in what's been called "the self-serving bias."
你们当中有一半人期中考得比平均分高 Half of you did above average on the Midterm;
有一半期中考得比平均分低 half of you did below average on the Midterm,
但如果我去问你们为什么 but if I went up and asked each of you
答案会各有不同呢 why the answers would not be symmetrical.
期中考得好的同学会归因于 People who did well in the Midterm would describe it
他们的能力或才能 in terms of their capacities or abilities.
他们会说 They'd say,
”因为我聪明，勤奋，杰出“ "It's because I'm smart, hardworking, brilliant."
考得差的同学会说 People who did poorly would say,
”考题出得不好，我很忙“ "The Midterm was unfair. I was busy.
”我的时间用在别的更值得的地方“ I have better things to do with my time."
教授也是这样，当论文被接受时 Professors as well--When people get papers accepted
那是因为论文写得很好 it is because the papers are brilliant.
当论文被拒绝时 When they got them rejected
那是因为有人要背后搞阴谋 it's because there's a conspiracy against them
那些编辑和评论员嫉妒他 by jealous editors and reviewers.
这两种答案存在一种偏向 There is this asymmetry all the time.
这种偏向存在于运动员中 The asymmetry has been found in athletes,
总裁中，意外报告中也有 in CEOs and in accident reports.
其实这是一种积极增强的手段 And again, this is sort of a positive enhancement technique.
你觉得自己很棒 You think that you're terrific
因为你很棒，所以发现在你身上的好事 and because you're terrific the good things
都是因为你很棒才会发生的 that happen to you are due to your terrific-ness;
而坏事都是因为意外或倒霉 the bad things are due to accident and misfortune.
我想讲的关于自我的最后一个方面 The final aspect of self that I want to talk about
就是为自己的行为寻找理由 is the idea that what you do makes sense.
这是社会心理学一个很有趣的领域 And this is one of the more interesting sub domains of social psychology.
这个理论由社会心理学家Leon Festinger提出的 The idea was developed by the social psychologist Leon Festinger
被称为“认知失调理论” and it's called "Cognitive Dissonance Theory."
令Festinger感兴趣的是 And what Festinger was interested in
当人们心理活动 was the idea that what happens
产生不一致时，会怎么样 when people experience an inconsistency in their heads.
他认为这会让人进入一种情绪不安的状态 And he claimed it causes an unpleasant emotional state,
他称之为“失调” what he described as "dissonance."
他认为我们会通过某种行为来减少失调 And he argued that we act so as to reduce dissonance.
当我们的心理活动出现矛盾时 When there's a contradiction in our heads
我们会不安，会采取办法 we're not happy and will take steps
让这种矛盾消失 to make the contradiction go away.
听起来很泛泛而谈 This all sounds very general
但这种现象非常显著 but there are some striking demonstrations of this
影响我们日常生活的方方面面 and how it could work in everyday life.
举个很简单的例子 So, this very simple example is that--
“确认偏向” is the confirmation bias.
有些同学的政治立场是右翼的 Some of you are politically right wing.
有些同学则是左翼的 Some of you are politically left wing.
如果我问你们，你们看什么杂志 If I asked you what magazines you read,
我会发现右翼的会看右翼的杂志 it turns out people who are right wing read right wing magazines,
左翼的会看左翼的杂志 people who are left wing read left wing magazines,
因为一般来说，人不喜欢接收到 because people don't as a rule enjoy getting information
与他们信奉的相矛盾的信息 that disconfirms what they believe in.
他们想接收到能确认 They want to have information that confirms
和支持他们所信奉的观点的信息 what they believe in and that supports it.
如果你支持布什 If you support Bush
你就会寻找关于布什的正面新闻 you're going to be looking for good news about Bush,
如果你不支持布什，就会寻找他的负面新闻 if you don't support him you'll be looking for bad news.
这个理论体现在很多有趣的行为中 And this manifests itself in all sorts of interesting ways.
我来讲一个简单的实验 I'll tell you about a very simple experiment.
这是Louisa Egan在耶鲁这里做的一个实验 I'll--It was done by Louisa Egan here at Yale
这个实验说明了一个观点… and it illustrates a point which is going to--which
我会讲一下这个实验对现实生活有什么启发 and then I'll talk about real world implications of this.
很简单的实验，你有三粒M&M巧克力 Very simple. You have three M&Ms.
你预先测试过 You pretest to make sure
这个人对所有M&M巧克力豆都一样喜欢 that the person doesn't like any M&M more than the other.
你拿出三粒 And there are three M&Ms.
这有什么用？你叫他们在两粒中挑选一粒 Who cares? But then you ask them to choose between two of them.
假如他们选了红色的 So, suppose they choose the red one.
一定要选一粒 You've got to choose one.
他们可以吃红色的那粒 So, they get to eat the red one.
现在把红色那粒拿走 Now, they're offered--You take the red one away
在剩下的两粒中选一粒 and now they're offered a choice between the two remaining ones.
结果发现，非常大的程度上 It turns out, to a tremendous degree,
你们也可以想象实验对象是你自己 and you could imagine yourself in that situation,
他们选了这一粒 they choose this one,
不是他们第一次没选的那粒 the one that wasn't the one they turned down.
对这个行为的解释是，当你选这一粒时 And the claim is that when you choose this,
为了表明你的选择是正确的 in order to justify your decision,
你会贬低第一次没选上的那粒 you denigrate the one you didn't choose.
你第一次没选上的那粒就被打上污点了 And so this one you didn't choose is then tainted
当拿它和第三粒相比较时 and you turn and then when compared to a third one
你就会偏向于第三粒 you favor that third one.
但这个实验有一个很有趣的地方 What's particularly interesting is
在本科生中做这个实验，很容易就得出这个结果 you get this effect easily with undergraduates
而在四岁小孩和猴子中，同样能得到这个结果 but you also get it with four-year-olds and with monkeys.
所以这种贬损的心理是非常普遍的 So, the same denigration tends to be more general.
这是实验室中得出的结果 Well, that's a laboratory effect
但其实认知失调还体现在很多有趣的地方 but there are some more interesting manifestations of cognitive dissonance.
其中一个就是理由不足效应 One is the insufficient justification effect,
这是一个很著名的理论，有一个卡通就是根据它改编的 which is so famous it had a cartoon based on it.
这些人说 The guys says,
“我为什么要请你当我的顾问？” "Why should I hire you as my consultant?"
狗就说 The dog--Some dog says,
“我能用认知失调这个特别方法来 "I use my special--the special process of cognitive dissonance to improve employee morale."
改善员工士气“ to improve employee morale."
”怎么运用？“ "How does it work?"
”当人们陷入一种很荒谬的情况时“ "Well, when people are in an absurd situation
”他们就会想出一个理由来使这种情况变得合理“ their minds rationalize it by inventing a comfortable illusion."
这说得不是很正确，当人们… Not quite right. When people are--
心理活动产生矛盾时 have an internal conflict,
当他们碰到不安的情况时 when there's something uncomfortable--
这是对的 Well, that's right.
狗跟这个人说 So says to this person,
”你不觉得很奇怪吗，你做这份没出头之日的工作 "Isn't it strange you have this dead-end job
你的才智比你上司高一倍 when you're twice as smart as your boss?
工作时间长，薪水不高 The hours are long, the pay is mediocre,
没有人尊重你的贡献 nobody respects your contribution,
但你还选择在这里工作 yet you freely choose to work here.
太荒谬了，不，慢着 It's absurd. No. Wait.
这当中一定有原因的 There must be a reason.
我在这里工作，一定是因为我喜欢这份工作“ I must work here because I love this work, I love this job."
这个方法真的行得通 This actually works.
Festinger做了一个经典实验 Here is the classic experiment by Festinger.
给了两组人一个很无聊的任务 Gave two groups of people a really boring task,
其中一组拿到的报酬是20美元 paid one of them twenty dollars,
做这个实验时，给的是真正的钱 which back when this study was done was real money,
另一组的人得到的报酬是一美元 gave another group of subjects one dollar,
低得惊人，然后他问这两组人 which was insultingly small, then asked them later,
”你们喜欢这个任务吗？“ "What do you think of the task?"
结果发现，拿一美元的那组对这个任务的评价 It turns out that the group that had--were paid a dollar rated the task
要比拿20美元的那组高得多 as much more fun than the group given twenty dollars.
大家想一下 So, think about that for a moment.
你们猜想的结果可能跟这个相反 You might have predicted it the other way around,
拿20美元的那组 the twenty dollars,
”20美元，我当然很喜欢这个任务“ "wow, well, twenty dollars, I must have enjoyed it
”因为我拿到20美元“ because I got twenty dollars,"
但事实是，当问及20美元那一组时 but in fact, the logic here is the people with twenty dollars when asked,
”你喜欢这个任务吗/“ "What do you think of the task?" could say,
”很无聊，我为了20美元才做的“ "It was boring. I did it for twenty dollars."
拿一美元的人就像Dilbert漫画中的人一样 The people paid one dollar were like the character in the Dilbert cartoon.
拿到一美元的人说 When paid a dollar they said,
“我不想像当个吃力不讨好的家伙 "Well, I don't want to be a donkey.
我不想做那种为了一美元而做无聊工作的人 I don't want to be some guy who does this boring thing for a dollar.
其实这份工作没那么无聊，挺有趣的 It wasn't that bad really, it was kind of interesting,
我学到了很多“他们会这样为不合理的行为找理由 I learnt a lot," to justify what they did.
这个理论对现实生活有很多启发 This has a lot of real world implications.
Festinger在一群人中做了一个很有趣的实验 Festinger did a wonderful study with people--
他把这个实验写成了一本书 a group of people, and he wrote this up in a book
叫《当预言失灵时》 called When Prophesy Fails,
这群人深信世界末日就要到来 who were convinced that the world was going to end
他们跑到一座山上去 so they went on a mountain
等待世界末日 and they waited for the world to end.
他们相信在某个时间某个地点 They had a certain time and date
世界末日就会出现 when the world was going to end.
他和他们一起等，时间过去了 He hung out with them and then the time passed
但世界末日并没有出现 and the world didn't end.
这时那些人说…这是让他感兴趣的地方 What people then said, and this is what he was interested in--;
那些人的预言被证明是完全错的 So, people's predictions were totally proven wrong
他们离开了家人，把房子送给别人 and they left their families, they gave away their houses,
把所有财产都送给了别人 they gave away all their possessions,
他们失去了所有钱，但Festinger发现他们没有说 they lost all their money, but what Festinger found was they didn't say,
“天啊，我真是个大白痴” "God, I'm such a moron." Rather,
相反，他们说“太棒了，这正是… Rather, they said, "This is fantastic. This is exactly--
这表明我们跑上这座山 This shows that us going to the mountain
延迟了世界末日 has delayed the ending of the world
这恰恰表明民我们做的是正确的 and this shows that we're doing exactly the right things.
我真是太聪明了“ I couldn't have been smarter."
一般来说 And in general,
当人们投入的精力，金钱或成本越多时 when people devote a lot of energy or money or expense to something,
他们就越不会相信自己是错的 they are extraordinarily resistant to having it proven wrong.
人们把认知失调应用到各种各样的情况下 Now, people have manipulated cognitive dissonance in all sorts of ways
例如欺负新人就是应用认知失调的例子 and, for instance, hazing. Hazing is cognitive dissonance at work.
兄弟会，医学院和其实会欺负新人的机构 Fraternities and med schools and other organizations haze people.
当有人加入这个机构时，他们会欺凌他们 What they do is when people enter the group they humiliate them,
让他们痛苦不堪 they cause them pain,
让他们承受各种各样的折磨和不快 they cause them various forms of torture and unpleasantness.
为什么？ Why?
因为这是一种很成功的 Well, because it's very successful
让人喜欢这个群体的方法 at getting somebody to like the group.
如果我要加入一个兄弟会… If I join a fraternity--
提醒大家，这是非法的 it is also by the way illegal
如果我要加入一个兄弟会 so - but if I were to join a fraternity
他们说”欢迎加入我们兄弟会，Bloom博士“ and they say, "Welcome to the fraternity, Dr. Bloom.
来，吃粒薄荷糖” Here. Have a mint,"
然后我们相谈甚欢 and then we have a good time and everything.
我会想”加入这兄弟会还不错“ I'm thinking "okay, sounds like a fun idea."
但如果我加入之前，他们要往我头上泼牛粪 But if I join a fraternity and they pour cow poop on my head
要我穿着女内裤在雨中站一个月 and make me stand in the rain for a month wearing pantyhose
他们还朝我扔石头 while they throw rocks at me
事后我就会想 I then think--after it I think
”为了加入这个兄弟会我吃了不少苦头“ "God, I went through a lot of stuff to get into this fraternity.
”这个兄弟会一定很棒了“ It must be really good."
事实上 And in fact,
根据认识失调来运用欺负新人这个手段得出一个结论 hazing through cognitive dissonance draws the inference that
这个理论非常有价值，这就是为什么它会存在 this is really, really valuable and this is why it exists.
如果你要竞选政府职位 If you are a political--If you are running for office,
你往往会招一些志愿者，不用付他们钱的人 you will tend to have volunteers and not necessarily pay people.
这样做的其中一个原因很明显 One reason for this is obvious;
不用付钱，当然就能省点了 it's cheaper not to pay people,
但另一个原因更有意思 but the other reason is more interesting.
如果你不付钱给这些人 If you don't pay people,
他们就对竞选更加投入 they are more committed to the cause.
这也是认识失调来解释 Again, it's cognitive dissonance.
如果你一个月给我一万美元帮你工作 If you pay me ten thousand dollars a month to work for you,
我会为你工作，但我会想 I'll work for you and I'll think
”我是为了一万美元才做的，这样更合理“ "I'm doing it for ten thousand dollars a month, that makes a lot of sense,"
但如果我一点报酬都没有，那我就会问我自己 but if I do it for nothing then I have to ask myself,
”我为什么要做这份工作？” "Why am I doing it?"
我就会得出结论，我一定很敬重你 And I will conclude I must think very highly of you.
免费的心理治疗往往没有什么效果 Therapy for free tends to be useless therapy.
这是一个… This is one--
心理医生收钱的原因有很多 Therapists ask for money for all sorts of reasons,
其中一个就是他们喜欢钱 including they like money.
但他们收钱的其中一个原因是 But one reason why they ask for money is
不用付钱的心理治疗，你会觉得它没什么用 if you don't pay for therapy you don't think it has any value.
你必须得付出代价 You have to give up something.
这样认知失调就会让你想到 So, cognitive dissonance will lead you then to think that
你为之付出代价的东西一定是有价值的 what you are giving it up for has some value
然后你就会喜欢上它 and then you establish a liking for it.
最后，孩子身上也有认知失调 Finally, cognitive dissonance shows up with children.
教育或发展心理学有一个 One of the most robust and replicated findings
很充分，而且经常被人引用的简单发现 in education or developmental psychology is very simple.
你找来两组小孩 You take two groups of kids
叫他们做一件事，例如画画 and you ask them to do something like draw pictures.
给一组小组奖励 Half of the kids you reward.
也许给他们一张贴纸，或者一个玩具 Maybe you give them a sticker or a toy.
另一组就不给奖励 The other half you don't reward.
根据简单的 Now, according to sort of a simple-minded
行为心理学的操作性条件反射观点来看 view of operant conditioning in behaviorist psychology,
拿到奖励的小孩应该会画更多画 the children you reward should do it more.
这就是操作性条件反射 That's how operative conditioning works.
但事实上 In fact though,
拿到奖励的孩子会想 the children who you reward later on think that
这个活动的价值变低了，如果没有奖励 this activity has less value and they are less likely to do it
他们就不太可能会再做 when there's no reward present.
再一次 And the idea, again,
没有得到奖励的孩子心里想 is the kids who don't get rewarded say to themselves,
“我花了时间来做这件事，它一定是有内在的价值的” "Well, I just spent time doing it, it must have an intrinsic value,"
而拿到奖励的小孩会说 while the children who get rewarded say,
“我是为了贴纸和玩具才做的” "I did it for the sticker. I did it for the toy.
“我都不是很喜欢做” I don't care much for this."
所以奖励孩子是有隐患的 And so, rewarding children has a danger,
如果你给他们太多奖励 which is if you give them too much reward
赋予他们的活动太多价值 and too much a value for what they're doing
他们就会贬低这个活动 they will denigrate the activity.
用这个理论来解释时需要小心了 Now, we need to be careful here about what's going on.
这不是简单的不一致 It's not simple inconsistency.
说回理由不足效应 So, go back to this insufficient justification effect.
比起20美元那组，一美元认为任务更好玩 So, the dollar group rated a task as more fun than the twenty dollar group.
这是真的 And it's true;
每一组都需要一个理由来支持他们的谎言 each group needed a justification for lying about the task.
每一组都需要一个理由来说明 Each group needed a justification for saying
这个任务有多有趣 how interesting the task was,
但他们各自有自己的理由 but they each had a justification.
其实他们都是为了钱才做的 They were each doing it for money after all.
所以认识失调不是很显而易见 So, cognitive dissonance is a little bit more subtle.
它不是明显的冲突 It's not just that there's a clash.
而是我们调整我们已认知的观点来让我们显得 Rather, we adjust our beliefs to make ourselves look
比实际上更有道德，更有理智 more moral and rational than we are.
再说回欺负新人 Go back to hazing.
我一定有很充分的理由 There's a perfectly good reason
让他们这样来折磨我 why I let them do all those things to me.
我就是那种愿意让别人折磨我的人 I'm the sort of person who will let people do those things to me.
但问题是，我接受不了这个答案 The problem is that's not an answer I could live with.
所以认知失调促使我想出另一个答案 So, cognitive dissonance motivates me to create an answer
让我可以接受的答案 that's more comfortable for me,
例如 an answer such as
“这一定是一个很棒的兄弟会，里面的人都很棒” "This must be a really wonderful group with a wonderful bunch of people."
换句话来说 And in other words,
我们都不公正地认为自己很棒 we are biased to believe that we are terrific.
总结一下 So, to sum up,
在社会心理学里有三个 there are three main findings about you
关于自我的主要发现 that come out in social psychology.
一是人们都以为别人在注意你，其实不然 One is you believe everybody notices you even when they don't.
只有你自己注意你自己 You're the hero of your story.
第二个发现是自我感觉良好 The second one is, you're terrific,
你不管在什么方面都比一般人优秀 you are better than average in every possible way,
你们每个人都这样认为 each one of you.
最后，为自己的行为找理由 And finally, what you do makes sense.
如果你的行为不合理，你会… If it doesn't make sense, you'll--
如果你的行为不合理，或者更确切的地说 If it doesn't make sense or, more to the point,
如果你的行为很愚蠢 if it's something that you do that's foolish
或者让你显得很攻于心计，或很廉价 or makes you look manipulative or cheap,
你就会捏造理由说服自己这是合理的 you'll distort it in your head so that it does make sense.
接着我要讲我们对自我和他人的看法 I want to move now to how we think about self and other,
我们对自我的看想 how we think about ourselves relative to
和我们对他人的看法有什么关系 how we think about other people.
这就要我们了解归因这个概念了 And this brings us to the notion of attribution.
归因理论就是说 So, an attribution is a claim about
为人的行为找原因，Heider… the cause of somebody's behavior and Heider--;
人的行为有各种各样的原因 Now, there's all sorts of reasons for somebody's behavior.
假如你侮辱了我，或者你对我很好 Suppose you insult me or suppose you're very kind to me.
我会说你是好人，或者你是无礼的人 I could say you're a kind person or you're a rude person.
我会想“你今天一定碰到什么好事了” I could say "this must be a great day for you"
或者想”你今天一定压力很大了“ or "you must be a lot of--under a lot of stress
或者”你一定是有事相求了“ or you must want something."
我们会对别人的行为想出各种各样的原因 There's different sorts of attributions we could make to people
但Heider发现我们通常会把他们行为的原因归为 but Heider's insight is we tend to attribute other people's actions
他们的性格原因 to their personality characteristics,
他们固定不变的一面 to long-standing aspects of what they are.
这就是所谓的“个体偏向” And this is known as a person bias.
简单来说就是 And more generally,
人们过多地把原因归于人身上 people tend to give too much weight to the person
而不是实际情况中 and not enough weight to the situation.
这种现象也被称为 This is also sometimes known
基本归因错误 as the fundamental attribution error.
基本归因错误 The fundamental attribution error,
是心理学的核心学说之一 which is one of the core ideas in psychology,
它认为我们倾向于把原因归咎于人的性格 is that we tend to over-attribute things to a person's personality
或欲望，或本性，而不是实际情况中 or desires or nature and not enough to the situation or the context.
这个学说体现在很多现象中 There's a lot of demonstrations of this.
而很多现象都跟智力有关 A lot of the demonstrations have to do with intelligence so,
例如，有研究表明 for example, there's actually been studies showing
人们往往会高估教授的智力 that people tend to overestimate the intelligence of professors.
为什么？ Why?
因为我站在讲台上 Because I stand up here
我给你们讲我知道的知识 and I talk about the one or more than one thing I know about
所以你们很轻易就推断出我一定懂很多 and so it's easy to infer that I must know a lot
但其实到了学期末，我要告诉你们 but in fact by the time this semester ends I will have tell you
我会的都已经教给你们了 told you everything I know.
如果你也站上来讲你学到的 And if you stood up and started talking about everything you knew
别人也会觉得你很聪明 you'd look really smart too.
这个理论的最佳研究就是一个问答节目研究 The best study to show this is a quiz show study,
找来两个人，抛硬币 which is you take two people and you flip a coin.
让其中一个来当提问者 And one of them is the quiz master
提问者负责提问问题 and the quiz master gets to ask questions,
他或她想问什么问题都可以 any question he or she wants.
另一个人就要回答这些问题 And the other person has to answer the questions.
如果他们是较真的 And if they play seriously,
提问者能轻易地打败另一个人 the quiz master's going to destroy the other person.
”我的狗叫什么名字？“ "What was my dog's name?"
”我不知道“ "Well, I don't know."
”我出生的那个城市的首府是哪里？“ "What's the capital of the city in which I was born?"
”我不知道“ "Well, I don't know."
你可能以为看这个问答的第三方会想 And then you'd expect a third person watching this to say,
”这有什么关系，谁问谁答 "Who cares? It's just--They're just doing this
只不过取决于那个硬币而已“ because of the coin they flipped."
但事实上 But in fact,
看这个问答的人 when the person watching this
要评估他们的智力，他们认为 has to assess their intelligence they give the quiz
提问者的智力比被问者的要高 asker a higher intelligence rating than the other person.
毕竟 After all,
”他似乎知道很多答案 "He seemed to know a lot of answers.
另一个人都没答对几条“ The other person didn't get much right."
我们往往没有考虑到实际情况 We tend to fail to discount the situation.
如果你要做一个职业演讲 If you were giving a job talk--
特别是给研究生院做 and this is for people in graduate school particularly--
如果你正在做演讲，结果投影机坏了 If you were giving a job talk and the slide projector breaks,
你完蛋了 you're screwed.
没有人会觉得 Nobody is going to say to themselves,
”这个演讲不是很好，因为投影机坏了“ "Oh, well, it's not such a good talk because the slide projector broke."
他们会想”是因为这个人讲得不好“ They'll say, "It's not such a good talk because of the person."
假设有人在做演讲 Somebody could give a talk
我们不停地发表自以为是的评论 and we could throw smarties at them the whole time
然后你会… and then you could--
然后另一个人会说 then the other people would say,
”这个人整个演讲中都很烦躁“ "The person looked kind of upset during the whole talk.
”他似乎是一个很紧张的人“ I wonder--They seemed like a nervous type."
这个理论最极端的例子 This can be taken to extremes and the biggest extreme
就发生在演员身上 is the case of actors,
如果要举个例子… which is if there's ever a case--
大家知道这个演员是谁吗？ Anybody know who this is, the actor?
你们50年代都还没出生吗？ Have none of you been alive in 1950?
他叫Robert Young his is Robert Young.
大家知道他演过什么角色吗？ Does anybody know the part he plays?
他演过一个叫Marcus Welby的医生 He played an--He played a doctor called Marcus Welby
在一个很著名的节目”神医Marcus Welby“里 in this famous show "Marcus Welby, M.D.,"
Marcus Welby是一个很厉害的医生 and Marcus Welby was a wonderful doctor.
他富有同情心，善良，上门医人 He was compassionate and kind, he made house calls,
拯救生命，为人们看病会诊 he saved lives, he counseled people,
后来Robert Young被信件蒙蔽了 and it turned out that Robert Young was then deluged with mail,
几千封信件 thousands of pieces of mail,
写信的人向他征求医学建议 by people asking for his advice on health matters.
他转念一想，就利用这个基本归因错误 And he then, in a twist, exploited the fundamental attribution error--
也就是说人们混淆了演员与角色 people confusing the actor for the role--
他利用这点，在电视上 exploited this by going on TV
大力推举Sanka无咖啡因咖啡的好处 and espousing the benefits of Sanka decaffeinated coffee
他说了一句著名的话 where he produced the famous line
”我不是医生，但我在电视上演医生“ "I am not a doctor but I play one on TV,"
因此人们听到这句话就会想 whereupon people heard this and said,
“他在医学问题上一定有点份量吧” "Well, he must have some authority then about medical matters."
其实混淆演员 It turns out that the confusion between actors
和他们的角色这种现象很普遍 and their roles is extremely common.
例如，很多人 Many people, for instance,
觉得史泰龙就算不是一个百分百的越战英雄 view Sylvester Stallone as either an actual hero
也八九不离十了 during the Vietnam War or sort of a hero
因为看了他的《第一滴血》系列电影 during the Vietnam War given all his Rambo stuff
但事实上，当然他扮演… but in fact, of course, he played--
其实越战期间，他在一间瑞士寄宿学校 he was in a Swiss boarding school teaching girls age twelve
教12到15岁的小女孩 through fifteen during the Vietnam War.
但人们并不这样认为 But it doesn't seem that way
因为这个角色影响了我们对这个人的看法 because the role infects how we think about the person.
20年前这部电影上映时 When this movie came out twenty years ago
他们需要一个人扮演一个同性恋男人 they needed a character to play a gay man.
根据IMDb上的资料 According to IMDb, [The International Movie Database]
我的信息都是来自那里的 where I get all my information,
他们找了很多巨星 they hit up all the big stars,
哈里森·福特，迈克尔·道格拉斯，李察·基尔 Harrison Ford, Michael Douglas, and Richard Gere,
他们都拒绝了这个角色 and they all turned it down
因为他们不想演一个同性恋男人 because they didn't want to play a gay man
因为人们会以为他们是同性恋的 because people would think that they were gay.
最后他们找了Harry Hamlin来演 Finally, they got Harry Hamlin to do it,
他是一个二线演员 who was kind of a B-list sort of guy.
基本归因错误最极端的 The biggest extreme of the fundamental attribution error,
混淆演员和角色的例子 confusing the actor for his role,
是Leonard Nimoy is Leonard Nimoy who,
因为他在“星际迷航”中扮演没有情绪的 because he played the emotionless Vulcan, Spock,
Vulcan人Spock，人们经常 on Star Trek, was then repeatedly viewed by people
在街上看到他时，都把他当成真正的Vulcan人 who saw him on the street as if he was an actual Vulcan.
他非常生气，写了一本书 He got sufficiently upset about this to write a book
叫《我不是Spock》，在书中他从各个方面 called I Am Not Spock where he described all the ways
描述了他不是Vulcan人的证据 in which he was not a Vulcan.
在他的演艺生涯中，他多次想扮演 His career, where he attempted many times to play roles
不同于Vulcan人特征的角色时 that were different from his Vulcan nature,
都没演成，终于很多年以后 stalled until finally many years later
他放弃了，并写了一本书《我是Spock》 he gave up and wrote another book called I Am Spock
他终于在基本归因错误面前让步了 where he finally conceded to the fundamental attribution error.
如果我在十年前讲这节课 If I gave this lecture ten years ago,
我会说基本归因错误 I would say that the fundamental attribution error i
是人的普遍特性 s a human universal,
是我们天生就有的 something that we're born with,
是人性的一个基本特征 a fundamental aspect of human nature.
这并不全对 This is not entirely true though
我们知道 and we know that
通过一些有趣的跨文化研究 through some very interesting cross-cultural research
拿不同国家的这些错误认识来作比较 that compares these biases across different countries,
例如这个拿美国和印度作比较的研究中 in this study between the United States and India.
我们发现不知道为什么 And it turns out that for whatever reason,
我们会在另一节课中讲到它的不同解释 and it would take another course to talk about the different explanations,
人们开始 but people start off at,
在八岁就不再犯基本归因错误 say, age eight not committing the fundamental attribution error
但在西方文化中 but in Western cultures,
我们有一种思想认为 where there's an ideology perhaps
人的命运掌握在自己手中 that people are in charge of their own destiny,
我们就会犯这种错误，人们会把角色和演员混淆 the error occurs and people over-attribute the role to the person.
而在东方文化中，人们更看重命运 In some Eastern cultures there's more of a view about faith
更多地归因于实际情况中 and more attributions to situation.
这体现在很多方面 And this has been shown in many ways.
例如在报纸上看到一宗谋杀宗 For instance, if you look at newspaper reports about murders,
像美国这样的文化就会着重于报道 in cultures like the United States the report tends to emphasize the personal
被指控为凶手的人的性格特点 characteristics of the person accused of the murder.
但在印度这样的国家，很大程度上 In countries like India, the reports tend to emphasize,
报道着重于 to a greater degree,
迫使凶手犯下谋杀案的 the situation that the person found himself in that
实际情况 might have driven him to commit a murder.
这一点很重要，它提醒了我们 So, this is an important reminder that
不能因为某种现象存在于我们文化中 just because we find something in our culture
或者存在于多个文化中 and just because it might well be pervasive doesn't mean necessarily
就认为它是无所不在的 that it's universal.
总结一下目前所讲过的内容 So, to summarize so far,
我们会在这节课中 and we're going to look at this a little bit more
更详细地讨论这点 for the rest of this lecture,
我们讲了社会心里学中的两个行为准则 we've talked about two morals in social psychology.
一个是对自我的放大 One is enhancement of the self
另一个可以称之为“对他们的过于简化” but the other is what you can call "oversimplification of the other."
我们知道我们的行为是由于 So, we know ourselves that our behavior is due to
一连串复杂的情况和我们的个人本性 a complicated cluster of the situation and our personal natures.
当事情不顺利时 When things go badly,
我们会归咎于外部情况 in fact, we'll blame the situation.
当事情顺利时，自我服务归因偏向 When things go well, the self-serving attribution bias,
我们就会觉得是自己能干 we'll credit ourselves.
但我们看待他人时，不会这样做 We don't do this for other people.
我们对己宽容，对人严苛 For other people we're a lot less forgiving.
你做了一些蠢事 You do something stupid,
那是因为你是一个蠢人 that's--you're a stupid person.
如果我做了蠢事 I do something stupid,
那是因为我那天不在状态 it's an off day.
所以差异就存在于 And so, you have this difference between
我们对自己的看法 how we think about ourselves
和我们对他人的看法中 and how we think about other people.
我们再来谈谈 Let's talk a little bit about
我们对他人的看法 what we think about other people
先开始讲为什么我们会喜欢他人 and start by talking about why we like other people.
首先我会回顾一下 And here I'm going to some extent to go over material
早前在Peter Salovey的课堂上用过的材料 that was raised earlier in the course in Peter Salovey's wonderful lecture.
有些候我们对别人的喜欢 So, some of this, our liking of other people,
是很明显的，我们在Salovey院长的课上就讲过了 is obvious and we talked about it in Dean Salovey's lecture,
我们在讲性吸引时就讲到这点 we talked about it when we talked about sexual attractiveness.
我们喜欢诚实，善良，聪明，有趣的人 We like people who are honest, who are kind, who are smart,
但一个又一个研究表明还有其他一些心理过程 who are funny, but study after study finds more fundamental processes
起了作用，我来一一列举 are also at work and here is a list of three of them.
第一个是邻近性 One is proximity.
我们倾向于喜欢离我们近的人 We tend to like people who we're close to physically,
身体上空间上离我们近的人 who we are physically and spatially close to,
经常和我们相处的人 who we spend a lot of time with.
在一个针对一栋曼哈顿住宅的研究中 In one study they looked at a housing project in Manhattan
他们问住户他们最好的朋友住在哪 and they asked people where their best friend was
90%的人说 and 90% of them said,
“我最好的朋友和我住同一栋楼” "My best friend is in the same building as me,"
50%说住在同一层楼 and 50% of them says the same floor.
问一下自己，你们在耶鲁最好的朋友是谁 Ask yourself who is your best friend at Yale.
有多少个同学的好朋友是在同一大学的？ For how many of you is it somebody in your same college?
好的，有多少是在不同大学的？ Okay. How many in a different college?
不分上下，但考虑到在耶鲁以外 So, call it a tie but then there's a lot more colleges
还有那么多大学… that aren't yours than the one--
你们当中有多少人最好的朋友是 How many of you would you--say your best friend is somebody your--
现在和你在同一层楼上课的？ currently on your same floor?
如果要你和这个班上的某个同学结婚 Yeah. If you were going to marry somebody from this class,
那会是坐在你旁边的那个人 it is the person you are sitting next to?
这不是一个很重大的发现 Now, in some sense this is an--a rather trivial finding.
当然你会和你经常碰到的人 Of course you're going to get more involved in people
交往得更频繁 you encounter frequently.
不然还能怎么样？ How else is it going to work?
但其实不是这么简单的 But it's actually more than that.
你看到某样东西越频繁，你就会越喜欢它 The more you see something the more you like it
这种现象被称为“纯粹接触效应” and this is sometimes known as "the mere exposure effect."
它是说单纯看到某样东西就能使它变得让人喜欢 The mere exposure effect is simply seeing something makes it likable
也许是因为看多了，就感到自在和安全 perhaps because it becomes comfortable and safe.
在James Cutting做的一个研究中 In one study by James Cutting,
他教一门心理学导论课程 Cutting taught an Introduction to Psychology course
在每节课上课前，他会在屏幕上放一些图片 and before each lecture he'd flash pictures on the screen.
他的屏幕保护会在屏幕上显示一些照片 He'd have a screen saver showing pictures on the screen,
绘画，他什么都没有说 paintings, and didn't say anything about them.
同学坐着，一边准备笔记，一边看这些照片 People would sit down, look at them while they prepared their notes.
在学期末，他叫同学 At the end of the semester he then asked people to
按自己喜欢程度，给这些图片评分 rate different pictures as to how much they liked them,
虽然同学都不记得哪些看过，哪些没看过 and even though people had no memory of seeing one
但他们喜欢的图片往往是 or--versus the other they tend to like the pictures more
他们之前看过的图片 that they had seen before.
因为这些图片挺眼熟，挺让人喜欢的 They were somehow familiar and somehow more likable.
如果我让你看你的照片和镜中的自己 If I showed you a picture of yourself versus a mirror image of yourself
问你更喜欢另一个 and asked which one you'd like more,
答案会很明显 the answer is very strong.
你会更喜欢镜子中的自己 You'd like your mirror image more
因为镜子中的你是你每天都看到的 because the mirror image is what you tend to see from day to day.
如果我让你好朋友看你的照片 If I showed your best friend a picture of you
和一张你照在镜子里的照片 versus a mirror image picture of you,
你的好朋友会更喜欢你的照片 your best friend would say he or she likes the picture more
因为那张照片上的内容是他们每天都看到的 because that corresponds to what he or she sees each day.
熟悉是一股喜欢的渴望和力量 Familiarity is itself a desire for liking, a force for liking.
相似性，我们喜欢和自己相似的人 Similarity--we like people who are similar to us.
朋友之间都有惊人的相似之处 Friends tend to be highly similar to one another.
夫妻之间也是 So do husbands and wives.
某种程度上，相似性和邻近性是很难区分的 Now, to some extent, similarity is hard to pull apart from proximity.
所以如果你和你在耶鲁的朋友相似 So, the fact that you are similar to your friends at Yale might just be
可能只是因为你们很相近 because you are close to your friends at Yale
在耶鲁的学生彼此之间比较相似 and people who are at Yale tend to be fairly similar to one another.
但有很多证据表明，相似性 But there's a lot of evidence that similarity,
远不同于邻近性，前者会影响吸引和喜欢 above and beyond proximity, has an effect on attractiveness and on liking.
相似性能预测到一段婚姻是否会成功 Similarity predicts the success of a marriage
人们也解释不清这个现象 and through a phenomena people aren't exactly sure about,
相处久了，夫妻之间就有了夫妻相 couples become more and more similar over the course of a relationship.
最后，人喜欢长得好看的人 Finally, people like good-looking people.
人喜欢有吸引力的人 People like attractive people.
长得好看的人会被视为更聪明 Physically attractive people are thought to be smarter,
更有能力，更会交际，更友善 more competent, more social and nicer.
有些持怀疑态度 Now, some of you who are very cynical
同时可能又长得很好看的同学可能会想 and/or very good looking might wonder
“像我这样长得好看的人确实更聪明 "yes, but good-looking people like me actually are smarter,
更有能力，更会交际，更有道德“ more competent, more social and morally better."
这是很正常的反应 This is not a crazy response.
有可能…例如 It is--it could be, for instance,
长得好看的优势 that the advantages of being good looking make your life run a lot easier.
使你的生活过得更顺利 make your life run a lot easier.
老师更喜欢回应你 Teachers are more responsive to you,
人们待你更好 people treat you better,
你有更多的机会闯出自己的一条路 you have more opportunities to make your way through the world,
你赚到更多的钱，你能得到更多的东西 you make more money, you have more access to things,
从而使你能改善你的生活 and that could, in turn, cause you to improve your life.
这就是圣经中的”马太效应“ This would be what's known in the Bible as a "Matthew effect.
马太效应是一个 " A Matthew effect is a developmental psychology phrase
用来概括一种现象，用耶稣的话来说 for the sort of thing where, well, as Jesus said,
“凡有的，还要加给他 "For unto everyone that hath shall be given
叫他多余” and he shall have abundance."
也就是说如果你长得好看 That means if you're good looking
你也会更聪明，但“没有的，连他所有的 you'll also be smart but from him that hath not shall be taken away
也要夺过来“ even that which he hath.
简单来说，意思就是富的变得越富 It's a long version of the rich get richer
穷的变得越穷 and the poor even lose what they hath.
有各种各样的研究表明 So, there's a variety of studies suggesting that
老师会评价好看小孩更聪明，表现更好 teachers rate attractive children as smarter and higher achieving.
大人觉得当丑小孩行为不当时 Adults think that when an ugly kid misbehaves
是因为他们的灵魂很丑陋 it's because they have an ugly soul
如果是好看的小孩行为不当 while the attractive kid,
”那个小顽皮，一定是别人烦到他了“ "oh, that little scamp, somebody must have been bothering him."
我在亚利桑那大学时 When I was in the University of Arizona
对我住的地方附近一带的所有记忆 and we lived next--and all I remember of my neighborhood
是住在我隔壁的小孩名字叫Adonis（美男子） is we lived next to this little boy and his name was Adonis.
虽然长得可爱，但这名字… Cute kid, but come on.
在模拟审判中，法官会判丑的犯人更长的徒刑 Also in mock trials judges give longer prison sentences to ugly people.
这就是马太效应 That's the Matthew effect,
没有的，连他所有的也要夺走，关进监牢里 those who hath little get even that taken away and thrown into prison.
我给大家讲一个最近的研究 There is a recent study, which I'll tell you about
我不赞成这个研究 but I am not comfortable with it as an experiment.
研究人员在一个超市的停车场里观察 The study observed people in a shopping--in a parking lot of a supermarket
并发现父母对丑小孩的态度 and found that parents were a lot rougher to the kids
会比对漂亮小孩的态度更粗暴 if their kids are ugly than if their kids are good looking.
他们把这个现象归因为 And they attribute it to the fact that,
不知道为什么，父母就是没那么喜欢丑小孩 for all sorts of reasons, the ugly kid just matters less to the parent.
有一次我看电视扑克比赛，一个输的人说 I was watching a poker game once on TV and somebody who lost said,
我引用他的话”他们把我像丑陋的继子女一样揍了“ and I quote, "They beat me like an ugly stepchild"
丑陋的继子女的命运 and the fate of the ugly stepchild is,
确实不是好命运，但这个研究也不是好研究 in fact, not a very good fate but this is not a good study.
首先 For one thing,
我不知道怎么用不会引起政治争论的话来说 and I don't know how to phrase this in a politically correct way,
但丑小孩的父母往往也长得丑 but the parents of ugly kids are likely to themselves be ugly people
也许这个研究的发现是长得丑的人 and maybe what they're finding is just ugly people
比长得好看的人更粗暴 are more violent than good-looking people.
现在是结束本节课的好时机 This is an excellent time to stop the lecture
所以本节课到此为止 so I'm going to stop the lecture
我们星期三继续讲社会心理学 and we're going to continue social psychology on Wednesday.