本字幕由YYeTs人人影视翻译制作 更多教程字幕 请登陆 www.YYeTs.net I'll begin the class officially
翻译：小仙·毒 glaciergr Roy elysecff 时间轴：Ghost 校对：没有人 取子小Q yank121 监制：yank121 梁良 with a different sort of demonstration.
限于版权 课堂演示中出现的某些材料并未得以显示 I want to just show you one of the change-Blindness studies
我要用一个不同的演示 that has been done in the real world.
来正式开始这堂课的内容 And these videotapes are not available publicly.
我想给你们看一个在现实中进行的 We get them from the web
变化盲视实验 and see them as little java scripts.
这些录像带没有公开发行 So, this is one of the first studies done
我们在网上找到了这些录像带 by Dan Simons when he was at cornell.
然后用了一些java脚本来打开 And his adviser at the time was our Frank Keil,
这是丹尼尔·西蒙斯 Who's now in our department.
在康奈尔大学时所做的早期研究之一 So, here's the study.
他当时的导师是如今在我们系任教的 And you don't notice it.
弗兰克·凯尔 Change blindness is one of the more striking phenomena
这就是他的研究 discovered by laboratory scientists
人们根本没有注意到 and by psychologists.
变化盲视是实验科学家们 But it's important to realize,
和心理学家们所发现的 to get away from the sort of surprise of the gorilla,
较为引人注意的现象之一 and the fact that it's hard to see the flickering,
但是请大家 the object that's flickering,
抛开对大猩猩的惊奇 and appreciate the big moral of this,
以及人们很难看到闪过物体的 because the big moral of this is actually, I think,
这个事实 striking and quite important.
理解这之中隐含的寓意是非常重要的 You think right now that you're perceiving the world.
因为我觉得 这里的寓意 I look down on you
实际上是非常惊人 也是十分重要的 and I think I have a whole sense of where everybody is.
你觉得你正在感知着这个世界 I can't see everybody perfectly in back.
我在这里俯视你们 You're kind of far away and blurry
觉得自己对每个人的位置都了如指掌 but there's a sense in which I have a world around me.
我无法看清坐在后面的每位同学 Similarly, if I'm to close my eyes for a second,
因为你们离我太远 有点模糊 everything just remains
但我还是能感知到周围的世界 and I could sort of remember some of the things that are there.
同样 如果我把眼睛闭上几秒钟 That's really good sound localization by me.
一切照旧 So you're looking up
我大概能够记起一些原先的事物 and you think you have a sense of the world both in perception and memory.
刚才的声音是我做的一个很好的声音定位 The change-blindness experiment suggested this isn't true.
你们从下面往讲台上看 The change-blindness experiment suggests that
觉得自己感知并记住了这个场景 if you look at me for a second
而变化盲视实验则表明事实并非如此 and during that second
变化盲视实验表明 all of your classmates change positions,
如果你盯着我看一小会 including those next to you,
而在这段时间里 you are extremely unlikely to notice.
你所有的同学 包括坐在你旁边的同学 The change-blindness experiment suggests
都换了座位 that if you turn your eyes away from me towards there
你是很难注意到的 for a second and turn back,
变化盲视实验表明 and I'm dressed entirely differently,
如果你将目光从我身上挪到那边去 you wouldn't notice.
停留片刻 然后再看回来 The exceptions would be if you told yourself consciously,
即便我换了一身完全不同的衣服 "remember what this guy is wearing;
你也不会注意到 He's wearing this, that and the other."
除非你有意识地告诉自己 But if you don't do it consciously
"记住这个人的衣着 you'll lose it,
他穿的是这样那样的衣服" and usually this is okay.
但如果你并不是有意识地去观察 Usually, it's okay
那你就不会注意到了 because your memory and your visual system
通常情况下 这是没问题的 exploits a basic fact about the universe,
通常来说没什么问题 which is that
是因为你的记忆系统和视觉系统 most things stay the same most of the time.
会应用一个关于宇宙万物的基本事实 I don't have to explicitly remember
这个事实就是 that you're over there
多数事物在大部分的时间里是保持不变的 when I turn my head for a second
我转头的时候 because you'll be over there in any case.
并不需要明确地记住 You don't need to hold precise representations of the world.
你是在那里的 And so you only notice it
因为无论如何 你还是会在那里 in certain clever circumstances.
你不需要拥有关于世界的准确表征 One sort of clever circumstance is when psychologists change reality
所以只有在某些特定情况下 as in the change-blindness studies.
你才会注意到这些变化 A second sort of circumstance is in movies.
一种特定情况是心理学家们 So, one of the big surprises
在变化盲视实验中改变现实场景 when people started making movies involving cuts
另一种情况就是电影 was it is extremely difficult
人们在制作那些含有切换画面的电影时 to get everything continuously right.
会惊奇地发现 And you need to work very hard to notice.
想要连续地理解电影中的一切 So, there's all of these continuity errors that creep up into movies
是极其困难的 and you have to be a film buff
你要非常努力才能注意到这一点 and writing it down
电影里到处都是这种一致性错误 to even notice this.
而你必须得像电影爱好者那样 And the overall moral here then is
把错误记录下来 that your perception of reality is a lot more sparse, a lot more limited,
才会注意到这种情况 than you might think it is.
所以变化盲视在总体上所表达的寓意便是 So, this is where we were at the end of last class.
你对现实的感知程度远比你想象中的 We were talking about the different sorts of memories.
更加稀少 也更加有限 Sensory memory, which is the sort of fraction of a second
这就是我们在上节课的最后所讲的内容 of sensory residue of what you're hearing and what you're seeing,
我们讲了不同种类的记忆 working memory, short-term memory,
感觉记忆 即你对当下的所见所闻 and then long-term memory.
在瞬间的感觉残留 And we talked last class
工作记忆 短时记忆 about how things get into sensory memory,
然后是长时记忆 into working memory,
我们上节课讲了 the role of attention.
外界信息是如何进入感觉记忆 And in fact, the change-blindness studies are actually just studies
又是如何进入工作记忆的 of how something gets from your senses to your consciousness
以及注意在其中所起到的作用 and what does and what doesn't.
实际上 对变化盲视的各种研究 Now I want to move to the distinction
正是在探查信息如何从感知进入意识 between working memory, short-term memory,
以及哪些信息能够进入意识 哪些不能 and long-term memory.
现在我想讲一下 Now, the obvious distinction is actually just in fact--is storage differences.
工作记忆 短时记忆 So, long-term memory or "LTM"
和长时记忆之间的区别 has a huge storage capacity.
最明显的区别便是储存容量上的差异 This is your memory like the hard drive of your computer.
长时记忆 简称"LTM" This is the memory you walk around with.
拥有巨大的储存能力 It includes all the words in English, just for example,
这种记忆很像你的电脑硬盘 60 to 80,000 words.
它是会伴随你一生的记忆 It includes everybody you've ever met,
比如 它存储着所有的英语单词 languages, faces, stories, locations,
大约六到八万个单词 nursery rhymes, songs, TV programs.
它存储着你对所遇之人的印象 Nobody knows the storage.
各种的语言 面孔 故事 位置 It is not true that you remember everything
童谣 歌曲 以及电视节目 that has ever happened to you.
没有人知道它的存储容量有多大 There's no reason to believe
你能记住所有曾经发生在你身上的事情 that this is true.
这个观点并不正确 At the same time though,
没有任何理由能够使你相信 you have a huge amount stored in your brain in long-term storage
这个观点是正确的 and nobody actually
但与此同时 It has to be limited
你在大脑中的长时记忆里储存了海量信息 because it's a finite, limited brain.
事实上 没有人-- But nobody knows how big it is.
记忆的储存容量肯定是有限的 Nobody knows how many terabytes you carry around in your brain
因为大脑是有限的 and--but it's a lot.
但并没有人知道储存容量到底有多大 Compare this to working memory,
没人知道你的大脑能存储多少兆兆的字节 the short-term memory,
但是 容量确实很大 which is actually very limited.
与之相比 工作记忆 Your memory of what you could store
短时记忆的储存容量 on in--where you could hold in consciousness right now
实际上则非常有限 is quite limited.
此时此刻 Here is an exercise. Do not write these things down.
你能够保持在意识之中的记忆 And I want you to remember them.
是十分有限的 I'm just gonna give you a few numbers.
我们来做个练习 不要把我说的写下来 14, 59, 11, 109,
我想要你们记住我说的 43, 58, 98, 47,
我念一组数字 25, 389, 44.
14 59 11 109 Please write them down.
43 58 98 47 View this as an IQ test
25 389 44 if that would relax you.
请把这些数字写下来 How many of you who decided to participate in this experiment
你们可以把这当做一次智力测验 got three or less?
如果这样想能让你们放松点的话 Good. Good.
参与这个实验的 你们有多少人 Four, five, six,
只写出了三个或者更少 seven, eight, nine or more?
很好 很好 Anybody get all eleven?
四个呢 五个 六个 This is a particularly difficult memory task.
七个 八个 九个或者更多的 The numbers are meaningless.
有将十一个数字全部写出的人吗 And I told--and I forgot to tell you
这是个非常难的记忆任务 to get your pen and pencil ready,
这些数字毫无意义 So some of you just glared at me.
我忘了告诉你们 But under normal circumstances,
要准备好你们的笔 准备好写东西 the cognitive psychologist, George Miller said
所以有些人就只是瞪着我在看 that this sort of suggested
但认知心理学家乔治·米勒认为 that the standard memory storage of short-term memory
这个实验表明 is seven, plus or minus two.
在通常情况下 And what that means is anywhere from five to nine roughly.
短时记忆的标准记忆容量 Some of you, I bet, can beat that.
是七加减二 Some of you on a not-so-good day
这也就是说 大约是五到九 maybe won't make it that much.
我相信肯定有人记下了比这更多的数字 Now "seven plus or minus two" is what you--;
有些人今天不在状态 So, that's what you hold in consciousness.
可能没记下那么多 You know, I can tell you 14, 21.
"七加减二" You walk around,
这就是你能在意识中保持的信息数量 "oh, yeah, 14, 21."
我告诉你 14 21 You hold that in consciousness with no problem.
你边走边说 But I throw eleven numbers at you,
"14 21" you can't.
你很轻松的就把它们保存在了意识之中 Some dribble out.
但我一下对你说了十一个数字 You can't hold that
你就记不住了 in your conscious window in your short-term memory.
一些数字就被漏掉了 Now, this raises the question
你无法将这些数字保存在 "seven plus or minus two" what?
有意识的短时记忆之中 And the answer seems to be
现在 这就引出了个问题 what George Miller calls "chunks."
"七加减二"个什么 And a chunk is a basic memory unit,
答案便是 Something you think of as a single, individual entity.
被乔治·米勒称之为"组块"的东西 So, suppose you see the string of letters
组块是基本的记忆单位 l, a, m, a,
你可以将它看做是单一独立的实体 i, s, o, n
假设你看到一串字母 If you don't know--
l a m a If you can't form these into words
i s o n and you have to remember them,
如果你不知道 these are eight chunks.
如果你不能把它们组合成词 You have to just pick them up separately.
要记住它们 On the other hand, if you break them up into four words
就要记住八个组块 you could just remember it as four chunks.
你必须把这些组块分别记住 And if you break it up into two words in french,
另一方面 如果你把它们组合成四个词 "la maison,"
那你只需要四个组块就能记住这些字母 "the house,"
如果你把这串字母组成两个法语单词 it could just be one or two.
"la maison" How much you know depends--
也就是"房子"的意思 affects how much you memorize
这就只需要记住一个或两个组块了 how much you could store in memory
你的理解程度 because it affects what counts as a basic unit of memory.
会影响你记住的信息量 And there's all sorts of examples of this.
影响你在记忆中存储的信息量 If I tell you
因为你的理解程度会影响记忆的基本单位 "1, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0,
这方面的例子有很多 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0,"
如果我念 Those of you who don't know binary numbers
"1 1 0 1 1 0 might have to remember that
0 1 0 1 1 0" as "1, 1, 0, 0," whatever I said.
你们当中不懂二进制数的人 Those of you who are computer scientists
可能会把我刚才念的数字记成 or mathematicians
"1 1 0 0" 类似这样 or, for whatever reason,
对于那些计算机科学家们 know binary numbers
或是数学家们 could convert it
或是无论出于什么原因 into a single binary number.
懂的二进制数的人来说 Anybody know what the number is?
他们能够将这串数字转化成 No, I cannot say it again.
一个单独的二进制数 Some number, 24,
有人记得那个数字是多少吗 or not 24--to some number,
可惜 我也记不清了 24, and then you remember "24."
某个数字吧 二十四 It's easier.
或者不是二十四 反正就某个数字吧 Suppose you see a chessboard
二十四 然后你记住二十四就可以了 And the chessboard is set up and
这就简单多了 you don't know how to play chess.
假设你看见一个棋盘 It is murderously hard to remember that.
一个已经摆好的棋盘 They've done the experiments.
你不会下国际象棋 They've taken people in a lab who don't know how to play chess.
那么要记住棋盘就非常困难了 They set up a chessboard and then they say,
有人做过相关的实验 "Okay. Look at this for five minutes."
他们把不会下国际象棋的人带到实验室 Then they take it away,
摆好准备好一个棋局 然后说 set it up again,
"好了 请观察这个棋盘五分钟" And it's murderously hard.
然后他们把棋盘拿走 "There is a horse-y thing on the side there and everything."
要求把它重新摆好 But if these chess pieces are set up in some way
这简直太难了 that's logical for a chess player,
"那个边上有个马 等等" then a chess master could look at it
但是如果棋子是按照对棋手来说 and remember it in a glance,
存在逻辑关系的某种方式进行摆放 "Oh. It's the Fibonacci Defense" or something like that,
那么国际象棋大师便可在很短的时间内 And then immediately recover it.
记住棋盘摆放的位置 Similarly, football coaches have been tested
"这是斐波纳契防守阵" 或别的什么 on their memories of football diagrams.
之后便能迅速地将棋盘重新摆好 And they have a photographic memory for football diagrams
同样 橄榄球教练会接受 because it corresponds to things that make sense.
对橄榄球示意图的记忆测试 Architects could have a photographic memory,
他们拥有对橄榄球示意图的照片式记忆 a perfect memory for floor plans
因为这些示意图对于他们来说是有意义的 because it makes sense to them.
建筑师也会拥有照片式记忆 They understand it.
对布图规划的完美记忆 And so the way you store things in memory,
因为布图规划对他们来说是有意义的 and this is a theme we're going to return to
他们能够理解其中含义 when we get to long-term memory,
事物在记忆中的存储方式 depends in a large extent on how much you understand it.
很大程度上取决于你对该事物的理解程度 And this shows up in expertise effects.
等我们讲到长时记忆时 Now, this is what's happening so far in short-term memory,
我们还会回头来讲这个问题 how much you hold in there.
这种不同会在专业知识的效果上表现出来 The question is how do you get it into long-term memory?
这些是目前所讲到的关于短时记忆的内容 So, you have long-term memory, your major storage system.
短时记忆的容量 How does information get from your consciousness to long-term storage?
问题是你又如何让它进入长时记忆呢 Well, there's one thing--there's one way
长时记忆是你主要的储存系统 which sort of works sometimes but not very well.
信息是如何从意识进入长时记忆的呢 And it's called "maintenance rehearsal."
有这么一种方法 Suppose I said you have to remember this number,
有时候还算有用 但效果一般 this string of numbers.
这种方法叫做"保持性复述" And if you remember it in twenty minutes
假设我让你记住一些数字 you will get one thousand dollars.
一串数字 And the string is my phone number when I was a kid.
如果你能在二十分钟内将它们记下来 and include the area code
就能得到一千美元 514-688-9057.
这串数字是我小时候的电话号码 Now, if you tell that to a four-year-old, well,
也包括区号 the four-year-old will say, "I'll remember it."
514 688 9057 And then you ask them, "what did I just say?"
现在 如果你把这些告诉一个四岁小孩 "well, I don't know."
四岁的孩子会说 "我会记住的" If you tell it to an--
然后你问他们 "我刚才说了什么" because you know something
"我不知道" if a lot depended on it,
如果你把电话号码告诉成年人 you would know to do something.
如果你经常需要用电话 What you would do is you'd say to yourself,
那你就会知道这是什么 "514-688-9057,
也就会知道该做些什么 514-688-9057,
你会对自己说 514-688 --"
"514 688 9057 You'd rehearse it in your head over and over again.
514 688 9057 The problem is you could hold it as long as you can do that.
514 688" It's like these movies.
你会在头脑中不断地重复 You see this all the time,
问题是只有不断重复 你才能记住这些 like an episode of 24:
这和我们在电影中看到的情节很像 "jack, call CTU
你可以经常看到这种情节 and tell them agent 11 is trapped in a--"
比如在《24小时》的一集中 And I can't even remember this
"杰克 给反恐局打电话 but the way to remember it
告诉他们11号特工被困在..." is you hold you've just got to repeat it
我记不住这情节 over and over again in your head.
但记住这一情节的方法是 But this will not typically get things into long-term memory.
将你刚刚听到的内容 To get things into long-term memory,
在你的脑袋里不断重复 rehearsal is usually not enough.
但这种复述通常不能将信息转入长时记忆 You need to do other things.
要让信息进入长时记忆 Typically, what you need is structure and organization.
光复述是不够的 And one way to demonstrate this
你还需要做些其他的事情 was in a classic "depth of processing" experiment
通常你需要将信息结构化 并进行组织 which nicely illustrates the fact
经典的"加工深度"实验 that the more you structure something,
从一个方面证明了这个观点 the deeper you think about it,
该实验非常清晰地表明 the better it gets entrenched in the long-term memory.
你对信息组织越充分 So, in this study what they did was they asked people
对信息理解的越深刻 they told people
信息进入长时记忆的效果就越好 that there's going to be words flashed on a screen.
在该实验中 研究者们要求被试 And all of the subjects saw the same strings of words.
他们告诉被试 There were forty-eight words.
屏幕上将会闪现一些单词 They were not told to memorize the words.
所有被试看到的都是相同的一串的单词 One third of the subjects was told,
总共四十八个单词 "Look. Some of these words
被试们并未被告知去记住这些单词 are going to come out in capital letters,
三分之一的被试被告知 some of them not capital letters.
"请注意 将要出现的单词中 Press a button for capitals, non-capitals."
有些用的是大写字母 Sure.
有些并没用大写字母 The other group was told,
分别对大写字母和非大写字母进行按键" "Some of these words
就这样 will rhyme with 'train',
另一组被试被告知 others won't.
"这些单词中 Press a button if it rhymes in 'train'."
有些将与'train'同韵 The third group was told,
其他则不是 "Does it fit into the sentence
如果与'train'同韵 请按键" 'The girl placed the blank on the table?'
第三组被试被告知 Press a button if it does.
"出现的单词能否填入这句话中 Press a button if it doesn't."
'女孩将__放到桌子上' Then they were asked as a surprise,
若能填入请按这个键 "what words did you see?"
若不能请按那个键" And the findings looked like this.
然后突然问被试 When they were asked to focus on just what the word looked like,
"你们看到的单词是什么" memory was very poor,
实验结果大致是这样的 the sound better, the meaning better.
当被试被要求关注单词的外形时 If you want to remember something,
他们对单词的记忆效果非常差 the best way to remember it is to give it meaning,
当关注声音时稍好 关注意义时最好 to give it sense.
如果你想记住些东西 This is illustrated through a very ancient technique,
最好的方法就是为信息赋予含义 which is that the way to remember things that are otherwise arbitrary
让其拥有意义 is to give them some organization through memory tricks,
通过一项非常古老的技术可以证明此观点 through vivid imagery or songs or poetry.
这种记忆方法就是通过记忆术 And there's a lot of examples of this.
通过生动图像 歌曲 或是诗歌 Do you know how to remember that the hippocampus,
将杂乱的信息组织起来 there's a part of the brain called the hippocampus.
这样的例子有很多 This is the worst memory trick ever
你们知道如何记住海马体这个术语吗 but it will stick with you for twenty years.
大脑中有个部位叫海马体 The hippocampus is involved in spatial memory.
这是史上最烂的记忆术了 It's involved in finding your way around.
但却能保证你二十年忘不掉 Think to yourself,
海马体与空间记忆有关 "The way I find my way around campus is through the hippocampus."
它与认路有关 And you think, "well, that's stupid,"
你这么想 But you'll never forget now
"我是通过海马体在校园里认路的" that the hippocampus is in charge of spatial memory.
你会想 "这太傻了" It's going to be all you retain from this course.
但你永远不会都忘记 Memory books on how to remember people's names
海马体是控制空间记忆 usually try to exploit this sort of thing
你上完这门课就只能记住这个了 when you try to get poetry or dramatic images.
关于如何记住人名的记忆类书籍 So, the memory books always typically involve somebody
通常会在你想要记住诗歌或者表演图像时 like you meet somebody with very spiky hair
采用这些方法 and they say "My name is Mr. Fish"
因此记忆类书籍里总是会有些经典例子 and then you remember--
比如你遇到某个留着钉子头的人 you think of their of a big fish impaled on their hair.
他说"我是菲什先生" [鱼先生] And then whenever you see them you remember their name.
之后你就牢牢记住了 It only really works
因为你会觉得他的头发像是钉了一条大鱼 for names like "fish"
以后每当你看到他 就会想起他的名字 But the idea is you try to generate vivid imagery.
只有名字是"菲什"这种时 When stuck with a situation where you have to remember ten letters,
该方法才会起作用 turn it into a song where--
但其实是你在试图创造生动的形象 or a dirty poem
当你需要记住十个字母时 where each of the letters is the first words of it.
将它们变成一首歌好了 When having to remember something that seems totally arbitrary,
或是一首色情诗 try to figure out a grand and obscene image
用这些字母来作为开头 that will come to mind easily.
当你需要记住一些看似完全随机的东西时 And this is how--
试着去想一个可乐的淫秽的 these are one way to get things into memory.
又容易想起的场景 At a deep level though, the way to get things into memory,
这就是如何 and this applies to this course no less than anything else,
这是使信息进入记忆的一种方法 is by understanding the--understanding it.
但从深层来讲 记忆事物的方法 I'm going to read you something
这种方法在这门课和其他事情上同样适用 and I want you to try your best to remember what I tell you.
就是去理解信息 These are not going to be strings of numbers.
我给大家读一段材料 This's going to be a series of sentences
我希望你们能够尽可能地记住我念的内容 "A newspaper is better than a magazine.
这不是一串数字 A seashore is a better place than the street.
而是一些句子 At first it is better to run than to walk.
"报纸比杂志好 You may have to try several times.
海岸比街道好的 It takes some skill but it's easy to learn.
起初 奔跑比走路好 Even young children can enjoy it.
你可能需要尝试几次 Once successful, complications are minimal.
这需要一些技巧 但很容易学会 Birds seldom get too close.
就连小孩也会喜欢上 Rain, however, soaks in very fast.
一旦成功 并发症的可能性会是最小 Too many people doing the same things can also cause problems.
鸟儿很少靠得太近 One needs lots of room.
然而雨水浸透地非常快 If there are no complications, it can be very peaceful.
太多的人做相同的事情会产生很多问题 Finally, a rock will serve as an anchor.
一个人需要很多房间 If things break loose from it, however,
如果没有并发症 就会非常安静 You will not have a second chance."
最后 岩石可以当做锚来用 And here is what I said.
但如果事态无法得到控制 This is murderously hard to remember.
你就不会再有机会了" Now try it.
这就是我刚才念的 Knowing what this is about, being able to put a context to it
要记住这些是极其困难的 helps the memory and helps it come to mind.
现在试试看 Okay. So, this is about how to get memory--
理解内容的含义 将其放入特定情境中 how to get information into your memory.
能够促进记忆 也有助于回忆 How do you get information out?
好了 这就是 So, you know, it's exam period.
信息如何进入记忆了 You got the stuff presumably into your head.
那你又是如何提取信息呢 You have to get it out.
比如说 这是考试周 You have to retrieve it.
你把知识大概都记到脑子里了 There is a court case.
你必须把知识拿出来 You have to figure out--
你需要将知识提取出来 You have to recount the crime that you witnessed.
比如 有个诉讼案件 You see somebody and you want to know his or her name.
你必须得明白 And you heard it; you just have to get it out.
你必须重新讲述你所目睹的犯罪过程 Well, how do you do that?
你看到某人 想知道他或她的名字 Well, there's "retrieval cues."
你听到过 你只是需要把它提取出来 Retrieval cues make sense.
那么 你是如何将信息提取出来的 Retrieval cues are just things
这依赖于"提取线索" that have been associated with what you what you're trying to remember.
提取线索是有意义的 If I have to remember to replace the windows,
提取线索就是 when I walk in to my living room and see that a window is cracked,
那些与你所要记住的内容有关的事物 that will remind me to replace the windows.
如果我要记住去更换窗户 If I had a lunch date with you and forgot about it,
当我走进我的客厅 看到窗户破了 when I see you,
这提醒我去换窗户 "Oh, yeah. We were supposed to get together to have lunch."
如果我约了你去吃午饭 但我忘了 Retrieval cues bring things back
当我看到你 but it's a little bit more complicated than that.
"想起来了 我们本该一起吃午饭的" There's a more general relationship between encoding and retrieval
提取线索能让我们回忆起某些事物 called the "compatibility principle."
但实际要比这稍微复杂一些 And what this means is
编码和提取之间有着更一般的联系 you're much better to remember something in the context
叫做"相容性原则" in which you have learned it.
相容性原则是指 And this is also known as "context-dependent memory"
你对已学内容中信息的记忆 and "state-dependent memory."
会比较好一些 It's illustrated by one of the strangest experiments
这也叫做"情境依赖记忆" in the history of psychology
或"状态依赖记忆" where they had people on a boat
相容性原则是由心理学史上 and then they had them scuba dive underwater.
最奇怪的实验之一证明的 And they taught them things
研究者们让被试上了一艘船 either on the boat or underwater
然后让被试用水下呼吸器进行潜水 with things that they held up.
被试们被要求在船上 And then they tested them later.
或戴着呼吸器在水下 And it turns out
学习实验材料 that you'll remember it better
随后他们对被试进行测试 if you're tested on it in the context in which you learned it.
结果表明 And it might be because then the retrieval cues help bring it back.
如果测试情境与学习情境相同 But it's more general than that.
你回忆的效果会更好 If you have to remember something you learned in this class,
这也许是因为提取线索帮助你回忆起东西 you will do better
但原因并不止如此 if you try to think about the room in which you learned it in.
如果你需要回忆你在这节课学到的知识 You will do better on your final exam
如果你试着去想学习时所在的教室 if you were to take it in this room
回忆的效果会更好 than if you were to take it in another room
如果你在这间教室参加期末考试 Because being in this room will bring back the cues.
就会比在其他教室参加期末考试 It's not just the environment.
考得更好 People who learn things when they're stoned
因为这间教室就成了提取线索 remember them better keeping stoned
提取线索不仅只是环境 at a sort of a low-level
那些在醉酒状态下学习的人 that doesn't disrupt other mental activities,
当其处于不影响其他心理活动的 remember them better when they're sort of stoned again
微醉状态时 than if they're non-stoned.
会回忆起更多 Similarly--so, if you study while you drink
他们在醉酒状态下 比在清醒状态下 you should tipple a little bit before coming in to the final exam.
回忆的效果更好 It's sort of like the
类似地 如果你在学习时喝酒 "what happens in vegas stays in vegas" sort of result.
那你在期末考试之前也该喝一点 And so, similarly, it even applies to moods
这结果很像是俗语 in that if you learn something when depressed
"发生在维加斯的事情就留在维加斯吧" you have a slightly better recovery of it
所以同样的 它甚至适用于心境 when you're in that same mood of depression
因为如果你在抑郁的时候学到些东西 than when you're elated.
那么相比你高兴的时候 And the idea is
你在相同抑郁状态下 that part of what memory is--part of what recovering memory
会回忆起更多的内容 is getting back your original context in which you learned it.
也就是说 "Elaborative rehearsal" and retrieval
记忆的提取在某种程度上来说 involves the connections between different things.
就是回到学习知识的原始情境中 Elaborative rehearsal is
"精细复述"和提取 that the more you think about something the easier it is to remember.
将不同的事物联系起来 If you have to think about--if you have to remember something,
精细复述是说 try to connect it to as many things as possible.
你对信息思考的越多 就越容易记住 Think of an image. Make a joke out of it.
如果你需要记住些信息 Imagine how you would explain it to somebody else.
试着将信息与尽可能多的事物联系在一起 Imagine how the world--what the world would be like if it wasn't so.
想象一幅画 用它来开个玩笑 And the idea is that this sort of thinking about it
想象你将如何向他人解释这些信息 makes connections in your memory
想象一下如果不是如此 又会是什么样 from that thing you have to learn, to other memories.
这种对信息的思考 And so it makes it easier to recover.
在你的记忆中 "Elaborative retrieval" refers to a finding
建立起所学信息与其他记忆之间的联系 that when you want to get something back out of memory
从而使之更易回想 people tend to give up too soon.
"精细复述"与一项研究发现有关 It turns out that there's a lot of stuff that's in your memory
当人们想要回忆起某些信息时 but it needs work to extract;
倾向于过早放弃 it needs various sort of searching strategies.
结果是 人们记住的东西很多 One study asked people who were considerably older than you
但却需要努力才能取出 to remember their high school classmates.
需要各种不同的搜索策略 And in the first pass people were terrible.
一项实验要求比你们年长很多的被试 Maybe they had a couple of friends they kept in touch with.
去回忆他们的高中同学 Otherwise, pretty bad.
最初 人们表现的很糟糕 And this is a good experiment
或许他们能想起几个一直联系的朋友 because you could use high school yearbooks
否则的话 非常糟糕 to judge whether or not they get it right.
这是个很好的实验 But then what you do is you tell the person,
因为你可以利用高中年鉴 "Look. Keep trying. Were you--what sort of--who was your teacher?
来判断被试们是否正确 What sort of clubs did you belong to?
但接下来你要做的就是询问被试 What sort of sports you did you participate in?
"听着 再想想 你的老师是谁 How did you get to school?
你加入了什么社团 How did you get from school?
你参加了什么运动 What did you do during lunch?
你怎么上学 What did you do during break?" and you keep ask
你从学校获得了什么 "Do you know--have any friends
午餐时间你做些什么 whose letter-- whose last name began with B, with C, with D..."
课间你会做些什么" 你不停的发问 And you keep pushing and pushing and pushing.
"你有没有 And over the span of time things come back.
名字以字母B C D开头的朋友" Again, it's not true that you never forget.
你不断地发问 There is honest to god forgetting
过一会儿 他们就会记起来了 but sometimes you think you forget
再次强调 这不是说你从来都不曾遗忘 and it's because you haven't looked long enough.
遗忘的确是会发生的 There's a real physical notion of searching for the right answer.
但有时你以为自己忘了 We've talked about retrieval.
其实是因为你并没有努力地去回忆 Oh. Every class I've given
寻找正确答案是有生理概念的 somebody asks either in class or by e-mail
我们已经讨论过提取 what about deja vu?
每次我上课 And deja vu is a feeling
都会有人在课堂上或通过邮件问我 that an event has happened before.
记忆幻觉是怎么回事 So, you're looking at me and I'm lecturing and you say,
记忆幻觉是一种感觉 "I've heard this before.
你感到事情曾经发生过 I know this before.
比如 你听我讲课 然后你说 You see somebody and say,
"我以前听过这个 "I've been in this situation before."
我以前就知道这个 This is not evidence for psychic powers,
你看到某人 然后说 which many people say it is,
"我曾经遇到过这种情况" But nobody really knows why this exists.
这不是通灵能力的证据 We know, and this is a clue,
许多人却认为这就是证据 it's worse with frontal lobe damage.
但并没有人知道为什么会出现这种情况 If you get damage to this part of the brain,
我们知道 这是个线索 You get a lot more deja vu experiences.
前额叶受损会使这种情况加剧 I asked some experts in memory,
如果你大脑的这部分受损 including Marcia Johnson who is chair of our department,
你会经历更多的记忆幻觉 what the best explanation for deja vu is.
我询问过一些记忆方面的专家 And the answer she gave, the--say one big theory,
包括我们的系主任马西娅·约翰逊 goes like this.
对记忆幻觉的最佳解释究竟是什么 Deja Vu is a feeling that it's happened before.
她给我的答案 这是个庞大的理论 The answer is it has happened before.
是这样的 It's happened half a second ago.
记忆幻觉是指感到曾经历过某事的感觉 And so what happens is sometimes there is a glitch,
答案便是 确实曾经发生过 a disturbance in the force.
事情在半秒前发生过 I don't know.
所以事实是 有时人脑会大规模的 There's a glitch and you are talking
出现小差错或是混乱 and then something happens to you
我不知道 and you put it in your memory.
出现了小差错 而你正在说话 But it's as if
然后你遇到了什么事情 you don't put the stamp on it
你将这件事放进你的记忆之中 of what time and what date.
但这就像是你并没有 So, you're talking to me and then you store it in memory
将关于事件发生的时间和日期 But you don't store it in memory as happening right now.
贴在对此事的记忆中 Then half a second goes by and you're talking to me and you say,
因此你和我说话 然后把这事存入记忆 "This is strangely familiar."
但你并未将其在记忆中存为正在发生事情 And that's one theory of what goes on in Deja Vu.
半秒钟之后 你对我说 Okay. So far,
"这场景我特别熟悉" there's the sort of good news, remembering.
这是关于幻觉记忆的理论之一 But then there's bad news.
好了 目前为止 Forgetting.
我们讲到的都是些好事 记忆 How many people can remember, without looking down at your notes,
但接下来要讲的可是些不好的 at least two of the numbers I gave you earlier?
那就是遗忘 How many people can remember at least four?
不要看你们的笔记 有多少人能记得 Oh, impressive.
至少两个我在之前念过的数字 If I asked you in an hour,
有多少人能记得至少四个 the number would go down.
很厉害 These are sort of statistics in a similar experiment.
如果我一小时之后再问你们 And this graph illustrates that people forget.
你们记得的数字就会减少 Over time, you'll forget.
这是在一个相似的实验中获得的统计数据 Why do you forget?
这幅图表说明 人们是会遗忘的 Why is there forgetting at all?
随着时间的流逝 遗忘就会发生 Well, there's different explanations for this.
为什么你会遗忘呢 One explanation is your brain's a physical thing,
为什么会有遗忘这个过程存在呢 It's a physical piece of meat, and it kind of goes bad.
关于这个有许多不同的解释 Physical things decay.
一种解释是 大脑是一个生理客体 And so, the memory traces that are laid onto your brain
它在生理上是一团肉 它也会变质 will just decay over time.
任何生理客体都会衰老 A second answer is interference.
因此 在你大脑中形成的记忆痕迹 So remenber those numbers?
就会随着时间的流逝而衰退 Here's a few more.
第二种解释是干扰 114, 81, 66, 42.
还记得那些数字吗 Well, the more information that comes in,
我再给你们念一些 that's similar to the stuff you're trying to remember,
114 81 66 42 it blocks your recovery of original information.
记住的信息越多 So your ability to remember something
这一点与你试图回忆信息相似 can be impaired by learning more things which are related to it
会阻碍原先信息的提取 because they get confused in memory.
所以你的记忆能力 Finally, and maybe this is most interesting,
就会因为学习更多与之相关的信息而减弱 there are changes in retrieval cues.
因为它们在记忆中会发生混淆 So, the more time goes by the more the world changes.
最后一种解释 也许是最有意思的解释 And if your memory is to some extent
即 提取线索有所变化 dependent on cues bringing it back to life,
时间越久 世界变化越大 then the change in retrieval cues
如果你的记忆在一定程度上 can make it more difficult to recall certain things.
依赖于提取线索 This leads to a puzzle where there's considerable scientific debate
那么提取线索的变化 over the case of childhood amnesia.
会使对某些事情的回忆变得更加困难 And the case of childhood amnesia is--doesn't refer to
这也导致了对童年遗忘症案例的 when a child gets brain damage and gets amnesia.
大量科学争论 What it refers to is
童年遗忘症并不是指 people have a difficult time recovering very early memories.
儿童因脑部受损而产生遗忘 I want people to just take a second
它指的是 and try to think back on what your first memory is
人们很难回想起年幼时的记忆 and roughly how old you were.
我想让大家花点时间 How many people don't think you have a first memory
试着回想一下 你最早的记忆是什么 until you were about five years old or older?
那时你们大概有多大 Okay.
有多少人认为自己在五岁或更大年龄之前 How many people think you have the first memory
是没有记忆的 of around age four or younger?
好的 How many people think you have the first memory
有多少人认为自己在大概四岁或更小 of around age three or younger?
便有了第一次记忆 Two or younger?
有多少人认为自己的第一次记忆 How many of you think you have the first memory
发生在三岁左右或更小 when you were about one years old or younger?
两岁或更小呢 And I'm not asking about past lives
多少人认为你的第一次记忆 that happened last year.
是发生在一岁或者更小的时候 How old is your--roughly your first memory do you think?
我可没问上辈子 How old?
去年就有这么一位说上辈子的 Between one and two.
你有第一次记忆时大概是多少岁 Between one and two?
多大 Anybody think they could beat that?
一到二岁之间 Same guy?
一岁到二岁之间吗 Yeah? One.
谁认为自己能比他厉害 Anybody else?
同一个人吗 The literature is unclear on this
那位 一岁 because it's very difficult to test people's recollections
还有谁 of their first memories.
关于这一点 文献也没有确切的说明 If I'm to ask people about their first memories,
因为对第一次记忆的回忆是否正确 they'll often say, "Oh, yeah.
很难得到检测 I remember I was in this room
如果我去询问人们的第一次记忆 and there was a crib and I'm going ga ga, goo goo
他们通常会说 "哦 是的 and I was on the potty.
我记得我在一个房间里 I was walking. I was so cute. I remember it."
有一张婴儿床 我在上面咿咿呀呀 It's very difficult to tell
或是我坐在马桶上 and, as we'll discuss in some detail,
我在走路 我真可爱 我记得啊" there are a lot of reasons to distrust people
很难判断这是不是真的 when they, not that they're lying,
正如我们将要详细讨论的 but to distrust the accuracy of people's memories.
我并不是说人们说谎 We also know from studies about trauma
但我们的确有很多理由 where people have terrible experiences
去怀疑人们记忆的准确性 when they're one or two.
我们也从 Typically, this trauma is not remembered later on.
那些对一两岁时遭受严重创伤的人们 People know of trauma
所进行的研究中有所收获 because they're told about it
通常受到的创伤在长大之后就不记得了 but they don't typically remember it with any accuracy.
人们只有在被告知的情况下 Even children-- older children
才会知道有创伤这回事 don't remember back beyond that age.
但通常他们无法准确地回忆起创伤这事 Nobody knows why childhood amnesia occurs.
即使是稍大的儿童 Nobody knows why it's very difficult to recover memories
也无法回忆起当年发生的事情 before about the age of three.
没有人知道为什么会发生童年遗忘症 One theory is that the retrieval cues
没有人知道为什么回想三岁之前的记忆 change radically.
会非常困难 I had a friend of mine who's a clinical psychologist
一种理论认为这是由于提取线索 and he suggested a new form of therapy
发生了巨大改变而导致的 where they make these giant tables and chairs
我有一位临床心理学家朋友 and then they bring you in to the office
他提出一种新形式的疗法 and you're standing there with these giant tables and chairs
房间里摆放巨型桌椅 and all these memories of being a baby
然后把你带进去 would come flooding back.
你站在那些巨型桌椅之间 And he dropped out of the field and really,
你所有的婴幼儿记忆 but it's such a cool idea.
就如潮水一般 想起来了 Some people think language is to blame.
后来他退出了这个领域 真的 So a child, a baby, starts out with no spoken or signed language.
不过这是个很酷的想法 Language comes to be learned at around one, two, and three,
也有人将此归因于语言 and it might be that the learning of a language
婴幼儿最初并未掌握口语或手语 reformats your memory.
儿童直到一两岁 甚至三岁才学会语言 And once the memory is reformatted
很可能是由于语言的学习 It can't go back to the previous state prior to language in the end.
重新格式化了你的记忆 It could be neural maturation.
一旦记忆被重新格式化 It could be that those memory parts of the brains
就再也不能回到之前没有语言的状态了 grow around age two or three that just weren't there prior to that.
还可能是神经系统成熟造成的 And nobody really knows.
可能是大脑的记忆区域 It's a fascinating research area
在大概两三岁时 才生长出来 why about memory changes early on.
但并没有人真正知道原因 Another case of memory failure is brain damage.
关于人类的早期记忆为何会发生变化 And brain damage comes in a couple of flavors.
一直是一个令人着迷的研究领域 There is retrograde amnesia;
另一个提取失败的原因便是脑损伤 "retro" for past.
脑损伤也分很多种 Retrograde amnesia is when you lose some memory of the past.
有逆行性遗忘 This could be in a case where you get some sort of head trauma
"逆行"即"过去" and you lose memory of your entire episodic memory.
逆行性遗忘是指失去对过去的部分记忆 But typically, if you have any sort of serious accident
这可能由于头部创伤而导致 that involves you losing consciousness
你会失去全部的情景记忆 you'll have a blackout of some period prior to that, say,blow to the head.
但通常 如果你经历了某种 And the reason for this is as you're having these experiences now
使你丧失意识的严重事故 they need to kind of get consolidated into your brain.
你会失去脑部被撞前的一小段记忆 Your brain needs to rewire
原因是 当你正在经历某些事情时 and catch up to the experiences you're having.
这些经历需要被记录到你的大脑中 A sudden blow to the head will knock you unconscious
大脑需要进行重新建构 and then the memories that have happened immediately prior
并将其与你现在的经历同步起来 will not get consolidated
脑部遭受突然撞击会导致你失去意识 and they'll be lost forever.
然后 发生在撞击之前瞬间的记忆 Another sort of memory is anterograde amnesia
就无法在大脑中保存下来 and this was the case of
于是就永远丢失了 this happens in Korsakoff's syndrome.
另一种遗忘则是顺行性遗忘 It happens to a very famous patient known as H.M.
科尔萨科夫综合征 who actually lives in Hartford, Connecticut.
就是这种情况 [遗忘-虚构综合征] And it happened to Clive Wearing,
有一位叫做H.M.的非常有名的患者 the film you saw last class.
现在居住在康涅狄格州的哈特福德 And this sort of amnesia is a sort of amnesia
上节课展示的电影《克莱夫·威尔林》 where you lose the ability to form new memories.
也出现了这种情况 And so you live in a perpetual present,
这种遗忘症的表现为 unable to accumulate new memories.
你失去了形成新记忆的能力 But it's actually a little bit more complicated than that.
你永远都活在现在 What happens is--
无法形成新的记忆 and this was an exciting discovery about these patients
但是实际情况要比这更复杂一些 that lead to some real insights about normal memory
实际上 What happens is-- and this is the brain damage in these cases,
对这些病人的研究得出了令人激动的发现 the temporal lobe and the hippocampus,
使得我们对正常人的记忆有了新的理解 very useful for spatial memory you'll know.
实际上 这些是病例中的脑损伤 One discovery made about people
颞叶和海马体 who couldn't form new memories
它们对空间记忆非常有用 is that they could form new memories,
从无法形成新记忆的患者身上 but of certain types.
得到的一个发现是 So for example,
他们能够形成新的记忆 this is a task here involving filling in a star
但仅仅局限于某些类型 While looking in to a mirror.
比如说 And if I asked you to do it
这个任务要求被试看着镜子 you'd find it pretty difficult.
然后填放小星星 It's just kind of difficult to do.
如果我要求你来做 You'd be clumsy at it.
你会觉得非常困难 You bring in an amnesic who can't form new memories
这本身是件很难的事 and you say,
你会变得笨手笨脚 "Hey. I want you to try something new.
你带来一位无法形成新记忆的遗忘症患者 I want you to try this star game."
然后你对他说 He'd say, "Okay.
"我想你来试着玩个新游戏 I've never seen it before but I'll do it."
来试试这个填星星的游戏吧" Tries it. Does very badly.
他会说 "好吧 You bring him in and over and over again
尽管我从来没玩过 但我会试试" Each time he does it he starts off by saying,
他试了一下 做得很糟 "I've never seen this before. I'll--I'm sure I'll give it a try"
然后你反复带他进来 But he gets better and better at it.
每一次在开始的时候他都会说 And this is known as implicit memory.
"我从来没玩过 但是我会试一下" The claim is that in these sorts of cases
但他会做得越来越好 you lose the abilities to form explicit conscious memories
这被称为内隐记忆 that you're aware of, that you understand.
也就说 在这些病例中 But some sorts of memories persist
患者失去了形成能够被自己意识到的 and you are able to form them.
能够被自己所理解的外显记忆的能力 This has actually been illustrated in a couple of dramatic movies,
但某种记忆仍然会保持下来 One of them
患者能够形成这种记忆 a very bad dramatic movie
有几部剧情电影很好地表明了这个现象 where Drew Barrymore loses the ability to form new memories
其中有一部 and somehow falls in love with Adam Sandler.
剧情很烂的电影 [初恋五十次] Definitely don't watch that.
德鲁·巴里摩尔失去了形成新记忆的能力 But a very good movie called "Memento,"
然后不知怎么的就和亚当·桑德勒相爱了 which is about a character
千万别看 who loses his ability to form new memories
但有一部很好的电影 叫《记忆碎片》 while trying to track down his wife's killer.
这部电影讲述了一个人失去了 "Memento" is a movie which is fascinating
形成新记忆的能力 because it's told backwards.
但一直在追踪杀害他妻子的凶手 But throughout "memento" there's another story told forwards.
《记忆碎片》这部电影之所以令人着迷 And I like this story
是因为它是倒叙的 because it very dramatically illustrates
但整部电影却又有另一个正序的故事 what does, and what is and is not impaired
我喜欢这个电影 in cases of severe memory damage.
是因为它戏剧性地展示了 So, I'm going to show you a couple of clips
在严重记忆损伤的病例中 that illustrate the disassociation from "Memento."
什么是并未受损的 Those of you who have seen the movie know
现在我就给你们看几个在《记忆碎片》中 that this ends up quite tragically for Sammy.
展示这种区别的片段 I highly recommend the movie.
看过电影的同学都知道 We've dealt right now with two sorts of failures of memory.
萨米的结局很悲惨 One is everyday failure of memory when you forget.
我强烈推荐这部电影 How many of you remember three or more of the numbers
我们现在已经讲了两种不同的遗忘形式 I originally presented?
一种是日常情况下的遗忘 Yeah? Go ahead.
我原先念的那些数字 14, 59, 11.
有多少人能记得三个或更多 Is that right?
是吗 说说看 Yeah.
14 59 11 Fine.
对吗 All right.
对的 I'm going to ask you again in a month.
好吧 Well, people are supposed to forget
很好 and some things will you will forget.
我一个月后再问你 That's normal forgetting.
人们总会忘记一些事情 A second case is forgetting due to brain damage.
你也确实会忘掉一些事情 Forgetting due to brain damage is exotic and unusual
这是正常的遗忘 but it's interesting
第二种情况是脑损伤导致的遗忘 in that it illustrates some more general themes
脑损伤导的致遗忘是很奇特且少见的 about how the mind works.
但是它很有意思 Remember one theme of this course is
因为它阐明了更为一般的主题 we're going to look at exotic cases
即心理如何运作 like the case of Clive Wearing,
大家记住 我们这门课的一个主题便是 not just because they're interesting in their own right
讨论那些极端的案例 but sometimes by looking at the extremes we could learn something
如克莱夫·威尔林的例子 about how normal people's normal,intact minds and brains work.
不仅仅是因为它们本身很有趣 The third case of forgetting is more interesting, and it actually...
更重要的是观察极端的例子能让我们了解 Well, I want to do a little trial here.
没有损伤的正常大脑是如何运作的 What I want to do is I want to,
遗忘的第三种情况更加有趣 you to listen to three children describe an event that happened.
这里我想做个小试验 I want you to come to some--your own guess.
我想让你们听一下 Imagine you were a judge, you were a childcare worker,
三个孩子对同一个事件的描述 You wanted to see I want you to be--come to your own guess about
我希望你们自己猜一猜 Who you believe and what you think happened.
想象你是个法官 或是儿童照管员 You've heard three children.
你希望知道 我希望你们能自己猜一下 Who do you believe? Who believes,
你们相信谁 以及到底发生了什么 there's three of them, one, two, three.
你听完了三个孩子的描述 Who believes the first one?
你们相信谁 谁相信 Who believes the second one?
一共三个孩子 一 二 三 Who believes the third one?
谁相信第一个 Sort of an even split.
谁相信第二个 Twenty-three hundred experts were shown these films
谁相信第三个 and asked about the different actions,
基本上三等分 whether or not the person ripped the book,
两千三百个专家在看了这个短片之后 messed up the bear, tossed the book in the air and,
被问到究竟发生了什么 as you could see,
到底那个人有没有撕书 the majority thought that he did.
弄坏小熊 把书到处扔 This is work done by Steve Ceci
如你所见 who was gracious enough to lend me the film to use for teaching purposes.
大多数人认为他的确这么干了 It turns out the second girl was right.
这是史蒂夫·切奇的研究 Absolutely nothing happened.
他还大方地把影片借给我来辅助教学 The teacher said,
实际上第二个小女孩说的是真的 "there is somebody named Sam Stone who's going to come in."
没有任何事发生 a guy walks in and says,
老师说 "hi," walks around and leaves.
"等下会有一个叫萨姆·斯通的人进来" The first and third children had their memories implanted,
然后一个人进来说 not through any sort of science fiction means.
"你好" 然后转了一圈就离开了 They had their memories implanted--
第一和第三个孩子的记忆是被灌输进去的 Well, they had their memories implanted like this.
并不是通过科幻小说里所描述的那种方式 Some of the children would just ask questions.
他们的记忆是这样被灌输的 The interviewer, by the way, was herself unaware of what happened
其实他们的记忆是这么被灌输的 So the interviewer was a perfectly naive interviewer.
有些孩子仅仅是问了些问题而已 And it turns out if you just interview children
顺带说下 主试自己不知道发生了什么 and you ask them questions about whether the book was ripped,
所以主试是完全不知情的 "Did you see him? Did he really do it?"
研究发现 如果只是访问这孩子 They don't say anything.
问他们书是否有被撕之类的问题 They didn't see anything and they won't say anything.
"你看到他了吗 他是不是真的撕了" Other children were told about Sam Stone.
他们什么都没说 They were told a stereotype
他们什么都没看到 所以也说不出什么 about Sam Stone
主试向其他儿童讲述了萨姆·斯通 that he's very clumsy and he tends to rip things
他们给孩子们留下了一个 and he trips and he breaks things and he spills things.
萨姆·斯通的刻板印象 And in fact, the third child mentioned that in passing.
主试说他笨手笨脚 经常撕碎东西 He said, "he always does that."
经常被绊倒 打坏东西 泼洒东西 Just knowing this about Sam Stone
实际上第三个孩子提到了这点 tends to raise the proportion of kids
他说 "他总是这样子的" who say, for instance, that he ripped the book.
这些对萨姆·斯通的认识 Other children were given suggestions.
提升了认为他撕了书的 They were given suggestive questioning.
孩子的比例 They were a series of leading questions like,
一部分孩子受到了暗示 "Oh. Sam Stone came in?
他们被问到一些具有暗示性的问题 Did he rip a book while he was there?"
是一些引导性的问题 比如 And still more children got both.
"萨姆·斯通进来了过吗 And in fact, the children you saw were from this group.
他在那里的时候撕书了吗" They heard Sam Stone being described as a clumsy fellow
更多的孩子同时接受了两种灌输 And they were given a series of suggestive questionings.
你们看到的孩子就来自这一组 In this condition they were given several suggestive questionings
他们既听说萨姆·斯通是个笨手笨脚的人 over the period of several months.
又被问了一系列的暗示性问题 These children, like the first child and the third child,
在这种情况下 他们在几个月内 are not lying.
被反复问了一系列的暗示性问题 They honestly believe
这些孩子 比如第一个和第三个孩子 that sam stone came in and did these things.
并没有在撒谎 Also they believe it
他们的确相信 and they're so convincing in their belief
萨姆·斯通进来后干了那些事情 that experts, including police officers and child caseworkers
他们相信这是发生过的 and judges and lawyers,
他们确信自己的记忆 find these children to be extremely believable.
使得包括警官 儿童看护员 And I think they probably find them to be extremely believable
法官 律师在内的人 because the children are not lying.
都觉得这些儿童的话是十分可信的 They really believe they saw what they saw.
我想他们之所以觉得这些孩子十分可信 But these memories were implanted.
是因为孩子们确实没有撒谎 And Ceci, and many other investigators,
他们真的相信他们看到了那些事 study how memories can be implanted in people's minds
但这些记忆是被灌输进去的 through suggestion and through leading questions.
切奇和其他许多研究者 It turns out that the same sort of experiments,
都在研究记忆是如何通过暗示 and the same sort of research has been done
和引导性问题被灌输进大脑的 with considerable success in implanting false memories in adults.
对成人灌输虚假记忆方面 There are dramatic cases of people
已经有了大量成功的 remembering terrible crimes and confessing to them
相似实验研究 when actually, they didn't commit them.
有些富有戏剧化的案例 And this is not because they are lying.
人们记得可怕的罪行 于是认罪 It's not even because they're, in some obvious sense,
可实际上他们并没有做过 deranged or schizophrenic or delusional.
这并不是因为他们在撒谎 Rather, they have persuaded themselves,
甚至都不是因为他们在某种程度上 or more often been persuaded by others,
精神错乱 分裂 或是幻觉 that these things have actually happened.
而是因为他们说服了自己 Psychologists have studied in the laboratory
或是更多地被别人说服了 how one could do this,
从而相信自己确实犯过罪 how one can implant memories in other people.
心理学家们已在实验室里 And some things are sort of standard.
对个体如何变成这样 Suppose I was to tell you a story
个体如何向他人灌输记忆 进行了研究 about a trip I took to the dentist or a visit I took to
有些事情是很标准的 or a time when I ate out at a restaurant and
假设我告诉你一个故事 I'm to omit certain details.
比如我去看牙医的过程 like I omit the fact that I paid the bill in a restaurant,
或是我在餐厅吃饭的过程 Let's say I finished the meal and then I went home.
我省略了其中的某些细节 Still, you will tend to fill in the blanks.
比如我省略了我吃完之后付账这个细节 You'll tend to fill in the blanks with things you know.
假如我说我吃完饭就直接回家了 So, you might remember this later saying,
但是 你仍然会把空白的部分补上 "Okay. He told me he finished eating, paid the bill and left,"
你会在空白的部分填上一些你知道的东西 because paying the bill is what you do in a restaurant.
所以你有可能在过后回忆时说 This is benign enough.
"他告诉我他吃完饭然后付账离开了" You fill in the blanks.
因为付账是你在餐馆里必须要做的事 You also can integrate suppositions made by others.
这都是理所当然的 And the clearest case of this is eyewitness testimony.
你会自行填补空白 And the best research on this
你还可能把记忆与他人的臆想掺杂 has been done by Elizabeth Loftus
最能体现这点的便是目击证人的证词 who has done a series of studies,
这方面最好的研究 some discussed in the textbook,
是由伊丽莎白·洛夫特斯进行的 showing how people's memories can be swayed
她做了一系列实验 by leading questions.
在教材中也有所讨论 And it can be extremely subtle.
这些实验说明了记忆是如何被引导性问题 In one experiment,
所改变的 the person was just asked in the course of a series of questions
这些改变可能非常微妙 shown a scene where there's a car accident
在一个实验中 and asked either, "did you see a broken headlight?"
给被试呈现车祸的场景 or "did you see the broken headlight?"
然后询问被试一系列问题 The "the" presupposes
问题是 "你看到前灯破碎了吗" that there was a broken headlight
或者 "你看到破碎的前灯了吗" and in fact, the people told--asked,
"破碎的前灯"这一说法 "did you see the broken headlight?" later on
意味着前灯确实破碎了 are more likely to remember one.
实际上 研究者后面所问的 It creates an image and they fill it in.
"你看到破碎的前灯了吗" In another study,
更可能被记住 she would show film segments and then ask,
这个说法制造了一副场景 进入了记忆 "did you see the children getting on the school bus?"
在另一个实验中 now, there was no school bus
她放了几个电影片段后问 but people who hear that question later on when asked,
"你们看到那些上了校车的孩子们吗" "Did you see a school bus in the film?"
片段里根本没有校车 are more likely to say yes.
但听过该问题的人在之后被问到 In another study,
"你在电影里看到校车了吗" she would show people film segments
更可能回答说看到了 and ask them
另一个实验里 either, "how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?"
她播放几个电影片段 or "how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
并询被试 a week later
要么 "两车相撞时车速有多少" she'd bring people back in to the laboratory and ask,
要么 "两车猛撞时车速有多快" "did you see any broken glass?"
一周后 Those who hear a smash tend to see the broken glass
她把这些人带回实验室并问他们 more than those who hear a hit
"你看到车窗破碎了吗" because the question has changed their memory,
听到"猛撞"的人比听到"相撞"的人 making it more of a dramatic event.
更倾向于说他们看到了车窗破碎 Hypnosis is the clearest case
因为问题改变了他们的记忆 where there's a sort of reconstructive effort led by,
让这些情节的记忆更加深刻 led as a result of leading and probing questions.
催眠是最为明显的例子 Some of you are readily hypnotizable
它通过引导性问题或试探性问题 and you can be hypnotized.
来重建记忆 And what we would learn about a past event from hypnotizing
有些人很容易被催眠 you will not necessarily then be inaccurate.
人也确实是能被催眠的 What hypnotizing does is it makes people very willing to cooperate.
我们在催眠状态下对过去事情的回忆 Unfortunately, it isn't as if there is a memory storage
并不一定不准确 there where you could just go through and look
催眠只是让人更加乐意配合 as in the movies
不幸的是 事实上并不存在记忆装置 where you just say, "what's the license plate?" the person's hypnotized
你可以像电影中那样 and then the flashback comes in
在装置里浏览搜索 and then they zoom in on the license plate.
问被催眠的人 "车牌是多少" Memory doesn't work that way.
接着记忆闪回 What happens is--what somebody will do in a hypnotizable state
然后便能找出车牌号码 is they'll be very eager to please the hypnotist.
记忆不是这样运作的 And so they'll make stuff up.
在催眠状态下 And people under hypnosis just make stuff up.
人们会非常渴望取悦催眠师 And they do very enthusiastically
所以他们会编造一些记忆 and very believably make stuff up.
催眠状态下的人只是在按照提示编造记忆 This is particularly the case with hypnotic regression
编的很开心 when we ask you to go back to your sixth birthday party,for instance.
也编的很认真 And what's great as a developmental psychologist is
催眠回归讲的就是这个 if I ask you to go back to your fourth birthday party
比如让你回忆六岁的生日派对 and you're hypnotizable
作为一个发展心理学家 最棒的就是 you'll be oh, just like a four-year-old
如果你被催眠了 except you won't be like a real four-year-old.
我要你回忆四岁的生日派对 What you'll be like is an adult's notion of
你会表现的跟个四岁小孩一样 what a four-year-old is supposed to be.
只是你并不会像个真正的四岁小孩 In fact, this has happened in the extreme case with hypnotic regression
你所表现出来的样子 where people claim to speak languages
实际是成人眼中四岁儿童的样子 like from ancient egypt.
实际上这是催眠回顾中的一个极端案例 And linguists love these studies
在案例中人们声称说出了 because you don't of course you don't really sound
来自古埃之类的各种语言 like you're speaking a language from ancient Egypt.
语言学家们喜欢这些研究 What you sound is like a North American
因为你所说的 who believes he's speaking a language from ancient egypt
并不像是古埃及语 so they're...
你听上去像是一个北美人 and so what it makes you is
相信自己在说古埃及语 hypnotism brings out the actor in you.
他们就这样 It makes you want to give a persuasive account of what happened.
可以说催眠只是让你 And so hypnotism is just an extreme form of
释放出了作为演员的你 what normally happens in eyewitness testimony.
让你想为发生的事情找个有说服力的解释 Repressed memories. We could devote a class.
因此 催眠只是通常在目击者证词中 We could devote a semester to the very heated debate
所发生的事情的一个极端形式 in the united states mostly about repressed memories.
压抑记忆 我们单独讲一堂课 There are many adults who have claimed
也可以用一学期来学习 to have experienced traumatic sexual abuse.
在美国引发激烈争论的压抑记忆 In some cases, this is unexceptional from a memory point of view.
很多成年人声称他们经历过 People know this happened to them.
造成精神创伤的性虐待 They've always known it happens to them
从记忆的角度来看 有些案例很普通 and then they tell people about it.
人们知道他们身上发生了什么 But there's a subset of cases
他们一直都知道发生了什么事 where people have had no memory up to a point of what happened to them.
于是向别人讲述了所发生的事情 Then they go to a psychologist or a psychiatrist,
但有些案例中 they undergo questioning, often using hypnotic techniques,
人们并不记得在某个时间发生了什么 and then they recover a memory
他们就去找心理学家或精神病医生 of past traumatic sexual abuse.
医生通常是通过催眠的方式向他们提问 And what this is--what makes this so debatable,
然后他们想起了经历过的 and there is a debate about this.
造成精神创伤的性虐待 I don't want to try to preclude it one way or another.
这个问题存在着很大的争议 What makes this debatable is some psychologists believe that,
关于这个问题是有些争论 in at least some cases, these memories are real
我不想为任何一方说话 and they have been repressed
争议的焦点在于 有些心理学家相信 through a Freudian mechanism
至少某些情况下 这些记忆是真实的 that they're too terrible
这些记忆被应对机制 to bring to consciousness,
所压抑下去 and the therapy brings them out into real life.
这些经历太过糟糕 But most psychologists believe
无法进入意识 that these memories cannot be trusted,
而心理治疗则使这些记忆得以恢复 that these memories are created through the actions of the therapist.
但大多数心理学家们认为 And so, there's actually considerable psychological and legal battles
这些记忆并不可信 over the veracity of the therapists
它们只是在治疗师的引导下编造出来的 where women who have claimed to have sexual be sexually abused,
因此 治疗师的诚信问题就引发了 for instance, have pressed criminal charges against their fathers
心理学以及法律上的很多争议 on the basis of false memories.
比如声称被性虐待的女士 Similarly, people who have been accused of sexual abuse
是否是根据错误记忆 have pressed criminal charges against psychiatrists
才向自己的父亲提出了诉讼 claiming that these psychiatrists have implanted the memories
同样地 被指控性虐待的人 into their sons and daughters.
会向精神病医生提出控诉 It is controversial whether memories are ever repressed.
指控他们给自己的儿女 What isn't controversial is that, for at least some cases,
灌输了这样的记忆 you can implant false memories in people,
记忆是否会被压抑尚无定论 not because you're a sinister or evil person
但我们至少可以肯定 在某些情况下 but because you really believed something happened.
你可以为人们灌输虚假记忆 And you talked to them about it
这并不是因为你穷凶极恶 and then you caused these memories to come into being.
而是因为你确实相信有些事情发生了 A final case is flashbulb memories.
你跟别人谈论这些事情 I asked this early in the semester.
之后你便形成了这些记忆 I'll ask it again.
最后的例子就是闪光灯记忆 How many of you remember
之前我也问过 where you were on september 11, 2001?
今天再问一遍 Is there anybody who doesn't remember
你们有多少人记得 where they were on september 11, 2001?
2001年9月11日你在哪里 It would be interesting.
有没有人不记得911当天 It was a socially relevant event,
你在哪的吗 but here's the problem with these flashbulb memories.
这很有趣 Flashbulb memories are the idea that these memories being so vivid,
这是个重大的社会关联事件 and they are vivid for many of us exactly
但这也是闪光灯记忆的问题所在 where we stood, what happened.
闪光灯记忆就是那些非常生动的记忆 Well, they can't really be trusted.
我们很多人都能生动且确切地记住 And here is why not.
我们站在哪里 发生了什么事情 Because they are such important events,
事实上 这些记忆并不能太过相信 I bet many of you have actually
下面说下原因 heard the question before,
因为这些事情如此重大 "Where were you on september 11th?"
我敢说你们中的许多人之前 and talked about it.
都听到过这个问题 What happens in these conversations is stories change.
"9月11日那天在哪里" I have my--I knew where I was on september 11th.
也和别人聊过这个问题 My wife knew where she was.
在这些谈话中 故事发生了变化 But I spent as much time listening to her talk about it
我知道9月11日当天我在哪里 as I spent time me talking about it.
我妻子也知道她在哪里 And now maybe my memory is actually
但我听她讲述她的经历的时间 of her experience and not mine.
和我讲述自己的时间差不多 It's not--for all of these cases,
或许现在我所记住的 the temptation you have to resist is saying,
其实是她的经历 而并不是我的经历 "Yes. I know memories can be swayed.
对于这些情况 I know they could be distorted and everything
你不能说 but, you see, I really am sure that happened."
"对 我知道记忆可以被改变 You have to resist that temptation
我知道记忆可能会扭曲之类的 because there are so many cases we know,
但我真的很确定 事情就是那样的" including the tape of the girls that we just saw,
你不能这么去说 where people are entirely sure things happened.
因为我们已经看过了很多例子 And we know full well that they didn't exist.
包括我们刚看过的那几个女孩的录像 Being sure is no guarantee that a memory isn't false,
她们完全确信事情是发生了的 reconstructed or even implanted.
但我们知道那些事根本没发生 So, this part of memory has three main morals.
确信并不能保证记忆不是虚假的 There are many types of memories.
重建的 或是被灌输的 I talked about short-term memory, long-term memory.
因此 记忆主要讲到了三部分的内容 I talked about implicit memory and explicit memory.
记忆有很多种类 These are sort of separable sort of memories.
我讲了短时记忆和长时记忆 You could break one
讲了内隐记忆和外显记忆 while having the other one impaired.
这些都是独立的记忆 Arguably, there are brain systems dedicated to memory for faces,
你可能在失去一种记忆的同时 memory for everyday objects, memory for spatial locations.
恢复另一种记忆 The key to remembering is organization and understanding.
可以将大脑系统分为对长相的记忆 Introduction to "x" courses,
对日常客体的记忆以及对空间地点的记忆 including introduction to psychology courses,
记忆的关键是组织和理解 are among the hardest courses at Yale.
某门课程的导论课 And the reason why is there is just a lot of material that is diverse
包括心理学导论课程 and you have to command each aspect separately.
是耶鲁最难的课程之一 The easiest courses at Yale tend to be highfalutin seminars
原因就是 有太多不同的材料 where you kind of have enough of a background
而你需要分别掌握每个方面的内容 that everything is can be clear and understandable.
在耶鲁 最简单的课程是高等研讨会 The more you understand something,
因为你已经有了足够的背景知识 the easier you'll remember it.
理解和掌握了相关知识 And finally, you can't trust some of your memories.
对某个事物的理解越多 Your reading response for this week
记忆起来就越容易 is you have to use your powers for good and not for evil,
最后 某些记忆是不可信的 though if you manage to succeed at this
你们本周的阅读要求 I will be very impressed.
你们需要正确使用你们的能力 别乱用 But you have to describe,
不过如果你能成功灌输记忆 based on the lecture materials and the readings,
我会很佩服你的 how to implant a false memory.
但你需要描述 We have a few minutes. Any questions on memory.
根据课程材料和阅读 Yes.
如何灌输虚假记忆 Uh huh. Hey. Please.
还有几分钟 关于记忆 谁还有问题 The example is,
好的 "What sort of memory is it when you know how to play the piano?"
请安静 And it's a very good question.
这个问题是 It is long-term memory
"知道如何弹钢琴属于哪种记忆" because you might know how to do a concerto or a song
问得好 and then you have it stored in your head
这是长时记忆 and you carry it around with you.
因为你知道如何弹一首协奏曲或是歌曲 You'll remember it a year from now, two years from now.
你将这项技巧存储在你的脑子里 It is long-term memory
伴随一生 but it is also an excellent example of implicit memory
过了一年 两年你都还会记得 because you know how to do it
这是长时记忆 but you could do it unconsciously
但同时也是内隐记忆的一个的好例子 without attending to it.
因为你知道如何去弹 It's not sensory but it's as if, put it crudely,
但你却是在没有注意的情况下 that your fingers know
无意识弹奏的 and not your mind.
你意识不到 但简而言之 We have time for one more question.
就好像你的手指知道怎么弹 Yes.
而不是你的大脑 The question is about photographic memory.
还可以再问一个问题 There are a lot of claims about photographic memory.
好的 My understanding is they do not tend to be substantiated.
这是关于照片式记忆的问题 Sometimes photographic memory,
关于照片式记忆有很多说法 and this came up when we talked about autism a few classes ago,
我认为这种记忆并没有被充分证实 is linked with savant-like skills.
有时 照片式记忆 People who have severe impairments in some ways
我们在之前的课上 讲孤独症时提到过 may have photographic memories in others.
与天才般的技能有关 I am not convinced that photographic memory in the sense
在某方面遭受严重损伤的人 that you see something, you take a picture of it,
可能会拥有其他的照片式记忆 you hold it in memory,
我认为 在某种程度上来说 really exists.
你看到某个东西 照下它的照片 I think there may be one or two case studies
存在记忆之中 that suggest it might be real
这种照片式记忆并不存在 but I think it's controversial.
我想可能有一两个案研究 Okay. We have a guest lecturer on wednesday.
表明了这种记忆的存在 Dean Peter Salovey will talk to us about love.
但我认为还是值得商榷的
好了 周三我们会请客座讲师
彼得·萨洛维院长会为我们讲述 爱情