今天课上我将把一些没讲透彻的问题讲透彻 PROFESSOR: OK. So today's lecture is devoted, in some sense, to this tying up of loose ends.
我这里有29页你们所提的问题 I have from you, 29 single-spaced pages worth of
这都来自于你们的指导练习九 questions, which you asked in your directed exercise nine.
我将详细回答这些问题 And I'm going to answer all of them in detail.
当然 我无法全部进行回答 Actually I'm not going to answer all of them in detail.
我会选出一些我认为具有代表性的问题 I'm going to try to pick out some of the ones that I think will be of general interest
课上问题没有被回答的同学 欢迎答疑时间来找我 and welcome those of you whose questions aren't answered to come by during office hours.
你们可以把这门课上所碰到的文章 So one way to think about what we do when we encounter an article in this class
当成是你首次碰到的某个建筑物 is thinking about what you do when you encounter a building for the first time--
比如埃菲尔铁塔 say, the Eiffel Tower--
你们手上有弄清这个建筑物的指南 and are given guidance about how to make sense of that building.
对于这门课的所有文章或书籍 So one of the things that I've tried to do for each of the articles or books that we've read
我都试图给出它们的大致轮廓 is just to give you a sense of its general shape.
让你们知道其不同之处 To give you a sense of what's distinctive about it,
知道其内部结构是怎样的 to give you a sense of how it's structured internally
知道这种内部结构如何决定 and how that internal structure determines what it is that
我们对其能做什么 以及其想传达的是什么 we're able to do with that article and what it is that that article is able to illuminate.
同时在特定情况中 我还试图提供这些文章所处的环境 But I've tried, in certain cases, to give you a sense of
同时在特定情况中 我还试图提供这些文章所处的环境 the neighborhood in which that article can be found,
就像考虑埃菲尔铁塔时 我会展示它在巴黎处在什么位置 just as in talking about the Eiffel Tower, I might show you where in Paris it's located.
我也可能让你们大致了解 文章同其相关的 Or I might try to give you a sense of how that article
其它类似方法之间具有什么关系 relates to other approaches of the same kind --
正如埃菲尔铁塔同其它标志性建筑之间有什么关系 how the Eiffel Tower relates to other iconic monumental buildings.
我们这次读的个别论文同更大范围内框架之间的关系问题 The question of the relation between the individual
我们这次读的个别论文同更大范围内框架之间的关系问题 articles that we read for today and the larger framework
是我在周四将要主要谈论的问题 is primarily something that I'll discuss in Thursday's lecture.
不过今天我也会涉及到部分内容 对比一些政治哲学观点 Though I'll get at some of it in comparing and contrasting
不过今天我也会涉及到部分内容 对比一些政治哲学观点 the political philosophy views today.
今天我主要是想仔细分析 What I want to do a bit more of today is to look at some of
我们所考虑过的一些论点 文章和作品 the details of some of the arguments and articles and writings that we've considered
方式则是像看待建筑物那样 考虑其结构是怎样的 in the way that we might look at part of a building and ask how it's structured there,
通过这样做认识到 recognizing that in so doing,
建筑中有很多部分我们还没有足够重视 there's lots of other parts of the building to which we don't pay attention.
或者 我们可能想问 建筑物构建时考虑到了什么问题 Or we might want to ask, with respect to what sort of problem is the building constructed?
这是埃菲尔铁塔的规划图 Here are the plans for the Eiffel Tower.
今天这一讲的目标是 根据你们在指导练习九中提出的一些问题 So the goal in today's lecture is, with regard to a number of
今天这一讲的目标是 根据你们在指导练习九中提出的一些问题 the questions that you raised in your directed exercise nine,
来审视某些论述的细节 to look at some of the details of some of the arguments
并将此放到更大的框架中考虑 and, to a smaller extent, to put those in a larger framework.
这样做的过程中 我获得了重要认识 Now in so doing, it's important for me to acknowledge
即你们所问的大量有趣问题 that there are a tremendous number of interesting questions that you asked
我根本无法给出答案 that I'm not even going to come close to answering.
比如 有一些问题是关于罗尔斯及诺齐克 There were a large number of very interesting questions about the connections between
政治哲学理论同美国宪法之间的关联 the political philosophy of Rawls and Nozick, for example, and the U.S. Constitution.
这方面我无法给出答案 I'm not going to have anything to say about that.
还有问题问 这些作者的童年经历 There were questions asked about the childhoods of the various authors
是否影响了他们的观点 that we read and how that might have affected their views.
这方面我也无法回答 I'm not going to have much to say about that.
我非常感兴趣的一个问题是 如果在Blue State咖啡馆 And perhaps my favorite question: I was asked, if I could have coffee at Blue State
我有机会同一位作者一起喝咖啡 我会选谁 with any one of the authors that we had read this semester, who would I choose?
我想 至少我不会选诺齐克 因为他不会喜欢Blue State And I guess I wouldn't choose Robert Nozick because he wouldn't want to go to Blue State.
除此之外 我真不知道该怎样回答这个问题 But beyond that it's hard to know how to answer that question.
所以 今天这堂课我将分为三部分 So what I'm going to do today is basically in three parts.
第一部分 我将回顾两堂课前 某些遗留内容的细节 The first large part of the lecture, I'm going to go over
第一部分 我将回顾两堂课前 某些遗留内容的细节 in some detail a leftover item from our lecture two classes ago.
也就是凯斯•桑斯坦关于规范的见解 That is, say a little bit about Cass Sunstein on norms.
我将由此过渡到我们所面对的特定启发式谜题中 And I'm going to use that as a way of segueing into certain puzzles that we face
思考这些如何用双重处理理论来进行解释 about heuristics and the question of how those fit into the dual processing tradition.
这同样是周四那一讲的主要内容 But that will also be a major focus of Thursday's lecture.
如果这部分中 我没有回答你的问题 请不要失望 So please don't be disappointed if I don't get to your question in that section.
我会在这部分的最后为你们选出一些 And then I'll close that section by identifying for you,
你们可能感兴趣的课程 a cluster of courses that you might be interested in
对某部分内容感兴趣 你可以选修相应课程 taking if that was the part of this class that interested you most.
然后关于课程的政治哲学部分 我还想说点什么 I'll then have some things to say about the political philosophy section of the course.
这一堂课最后 我将以道德哲学部分内容作结 And I'll close today's lecture with the moral philosophy section of the course,
每次我会指示你们下一步怎么走 each time indicating places to go next
如果你对我讲的特定内容非常感兴趣的话 if you were particularly moved by some of the readings that we did.
首先 我们细致考虑一下凯斯•桑斯坦的1996年论文 So let's start with a somewhat detailed introduction to what it is that Cass Sunstein said
这是上周二阅读材料中的内容 in the 1996 article that we read for last Tuesday's class.
桑斯坦试图在那段文字中 What Sunstein is attempting to do in that piece
辨别出我们对自己及他人特定行为的态度 is to identify the ways in which our attitudes towards certain kinds of behaviors
对自己及他人特定决策的态度 on our part and the part of others towards certain sorts of decisions
如何受到"社会规范"的影响 on our part and the part of others are affected by what he calls,
他所说的社会规范来自于社会学文献 drawing from a large body of sociological literature, social norms.
社会规范也就是关于许可和不许可的社会态度 Social norms are basically social attitudes of approval and disapproval that specify,
通过特定的默示机制 人作为社会性灵长类动物 through the kinds of tacit mechanisms that human beings as social primates have
能表达对自己和他人行为的不许可和许可 for expressing disapproval and approval of one's and other's actions.
也就是说 关于许可和不许可的社会态度 That is, social attitudes of approval and disapproval
规定了应该做什么 不应该做什么 specifying what ought to be done and what ought not to be done.
微妙事物比如细微表情变化 亲近还是躲避 Subtle things like nuanced facial expressions, approaches, avoidances,
所有这些社会线索 我们在幼年时就很敏感 all of the social cues to which we are extraordinarily sensitive in infancy,
我们在儿时就非常敏感 to which we are extraordinarily sensitive in our early years,
我们在初中和高中的时候就更敏感了 to which we are absolutely, exquisitely sensitive in middle school and high school.
这种敏感会一直陪伴我们一生 And to which we continue to be sensitive throughout our life.
桑斯坦指出 社会规范决定社会意义 What Sunstein points out is that social norms determine social meanings.
也就是 决定了特定行为所显示的态度和承诺 That is, they determine the attitudes and commitments that a particular type of conduct signals.
他指出 如果你在系安全带不是规范的国家系安全带 So, he points out, if you fasten your seatbelt in a country where seatbelt use is not the norm
那么司机就会觉得你是在小看他的驾驶技能 then you express in so doing implicit criticism of the ability of your driver
认为他开车很危险 to navigate the car effectively on the highway.
系安全带反倒成了一种无礼 Fastening your seatbelt is an insult.
我和家人曾在我丈夫的故乡东欧租车 When my family and I rent cars in Eastern Europe, where my husband is from,
如果不是从大公司租 租来的车会配有一块小金属片 rental cars typically come, if you don't rent them from a major agency, with a small metal plate
把它插入到安全带锁中 就可以在不系安全带的时候 that you can slide into the seatbelt lock without having a seatbelt attached to it
避免烦人的哔哔声 so that the annoying beeping sound goes off
这样你就能不系"侮辱人"的安全带了 and you don't have to wear your insulting seatbelt.
而在系安全带是规范甚至法律规定的国家 Whereas in nations where seatbelt use is the norm, where seatbelt use is in fact the law,
不系安全带的做法则表现出对规范或法律的藐视 the failure to fasten your seatbelt is an expression of disrespect.
我小时候 我家让我觉得很尴尬 When I was growing up, my family, to my great embarrassment,
家里人将蔬菜残渣和碎纸屑分开 separated its vegetable scraps from its paper scraps
在后院堆成堆肥堆 and put them in the backyard into a compost heap.
这种做法在1970年代的马萨诸塞城郊还不是规范 The social meaning of a compost heap in the 1970s in suburban Massachusetts
这种做法在1970年代的马萨诸塞城郊还不是规范 was one of non-normativity.
在邻居们看来 我家似乎是在炫耀说 我们社会意识好于你们 It was one of an expression, perhaps, that we were more socially conscious than our neighbors,
我们比你们更优秀 perhaps thought we were better than our neighbors.
这同社会规范是不匹配的 But whatever it was it wasn't a way of fitting in.
现在 在美国大部分地方 堆肥堆 It is now the case in large portions of America that a compost heap
可回收手提袋 or the carrying of a recyclable bag
全谱带长期使用的灯泡 or the replacement of your light bulb with a full-spectrum long-term bulb
已经成为环保的一般做法 而不是一种不合群的态度 simply expresses respect for the environment rather than an outlier attitude.
我的匈牙利外甥今年夏天造访我们家 My Hungarian nephew, when he came to visit us this summer,
穿着他认为很有型的铁娘子T恤 wore what he thought to be very stylish Iron Maiden t-shirts,
这在布达佩斯被认为很酷 which in Budapest were in expression of cool.
而在康涅狄格城郊环境下 In our suburban Connecticut environment,
他的行为通常被误解为不服管教 his actions were often misperceived as rebellious
这是他的衣服所传递的社会信号 because of the social signals that his clothing sent.
我让你们在政治哲学讨论的语境下阅读桑斯坦的论文 So the reason that I had you read the Sunstein article in
我让你们在政治哲学讨论的语境下阅读桑斯坦的论文 the context of our political philosophy discussion
是为了指出 在考虑什么社会结构正当时 这里存在多层次的复杂性 was to point out to you how many more layers of complexity there are
是为了指出 在考虑什么社会结构正当时 这里存在多层次的复杂性 when we start thinking about what kind of social structures are legitimate.
而且 桑斯坦论文中还有一个特定问题被你们问到 There was, in addition, a very particular question about the Sunstein article,
而且 桑斯坦论文中还有一个特定问题被你们问到 which was raised in the context of our feedback page,
我想借此过渡到下一部分内容 about which I want to say a small bit by way of transition.
有一个学生问 So one of the students asked
我能否解释桑斯坦关于支付意愿和允许意愿的较复杂论述 whether I could characterize Sunstein's somewhat complicated argument
我能否解释桑斯坦关于支付意愿和允许意愿的较复杂论述 about willingness to pay and willingness to allow.
我们现在是在考虑一个特定论述的特定内容 What we're doing now is we're looking at a very particular girder of a very particular argument.
桑斯坦在文中引入了 So Sunstein in that article, you may recall,
所谓禀赋效应的讨论 introduces a discussion of what's known as the endowment effect,
禀赋效应也就是说 人放弃已有物品时要价较高 which is basically the tendency of human beings to demand more to give up an owned object
而在付钱获取物品时出价较低 than they would be prepared to pay to acquire that object.
某人愿意卖多少钱 术语是WTA And the term for how much it is that somebody's willing to sell something for is WTA,
即接受(支付)意愿 willingness to accept payment,
某人愿意以多少钱买 术语是WTP whereas the term for that which somebody's willing to pay for an object is WTP,
即支付意愿 or willingness to pay.
假设我有一个漂亮的耶鲁杯子 我寻求出售给你 It turns out that if I have a beautiful Yale mug, which I seek to sell to you,
我们俩评估的价值通常会有差异 that our assessments of its value will very often differ.
我可能会说 这个漂亮杯子低于10美元不卖 I may well say that I won't part with my beautiful mug for anything less than $10.
而你说 "你这杯子又旧又丑 超过5美元我不买" Whereas you say, "I wouldn't buy your crappy old mug for anything more than $5."
如果我和你位置对调 你有杯子 而我没有 Even if, when we alter the situation and you have the mug and I don't,
我们的反应则会反过来 our responses are inverted.
我会说杯子又旧又丑 超过5美元不买 I wouldn't buy your crappy old mug for anything more than $5
你会说杯子漂亮 低于10美元不卖 and you wouldn't part with it for anything less than $10.
桑斯坦在这篇15年前的论文中假设 Now Sunstein, 15 years ago in this article, hypothesizes
能解释这种效应的主要还是社会规范 that what explains this effect is primarily something about social norms.
不过至少在某些意义上 他似乎是错了 It looks like, at least to some extent, that he was wrong about that.
至少把整个现象归于社会规范是错的 At least that he was wrong that social norms fully explain the phenomena.
最近5年耶鲁大学劳里•桑托斯实验室的研究 Because research done in Laurie Santos lab at this very university in the last five years
似乎证明 seems to suggest
类似于禀赋效应的现象同样能出现在僧帽猴身上 that something akin to the endowment effect can be found even in Capuchin monkeys.
哪怕是相同物品 自己拥有时 A tendency to value more that which is yours
比自己不拥有时 僧帽猴认为物品价值更大 than that which is not, even when the objects are identical.
不过我们仍然有理由相信桑斯坦的部分论述 That said, there is still reason to think that Sunstein is on to something
也就是支付意愿和允许意愿之间的差异 when he argues that the willingness to pay, willingness to allow distinction,
在某些方式上体现出了社会意义 in some ways is tracking something about social meaning.
他指出 行为经济学中进行了一系列研究 So he points out that in a series of studies done in the context of behavioral economics
研究对象是芝加哥大学附近的WEIRD群体 with WEIRD subjects near the University of Chicago,
至少在西方 教育良好 工业化 富裕 民主的成年人身上 for at least Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic, adults,
显示出了这方面非常明显的不对称性 it looks like this asymmetry is rather profound.
具体的研究细节我这里就不过多讲解了 So he described this study, the details of which I had thought I would go through but I won't,
研究中 我们看到了研究对象 in which what you see is a rather radical asymmetry in subject's willingness to
在买进和卖出物品时意愿的显著不对称性 either acquire an object from another or part with an object that they own.
桑斯坦认为这些例子意味着 Sunstein's response to these sorts of cases is to suggest
这些差异同社会规范和意义有很大关联 that the difference here has a lot to do with social norms and meanings.
类似地 接受一定量金钱允许某物种灭绝的意愿 So that being willing to, for example accept a certain amount of money
类似地 接受一定量金钱允许某物种灭绝的意愿 to allow the extinction of a species has a very different social meaning than--
同支付一定量金钱预防该物种灭绝的意愿 具有不同社会意义 what you might think of as structurally the same--
同支付一定量金钱预防该物种灭绝的意愿 具有不同社会意义 accepting, or being willing to pay a certain amount of money
同支付一定量金钱预防该物种灭绝的意愿 具有不同社会意义 to prevent the extinction of the species.
是考虑物种灭绝的世界状态 Whether you consider the state of the world where the species is extinct
还是考虑物种存在 需要挽救物种 这一世界状态 or whether you consider the state of the world where the species is present
还是考虑物种存在 需要挽救物种 这一世界状态 and it's your job to save it, to be the baseline,
对人们的价值评估影响很大 turns out to affect people's evaluation of it.
桑斯坦在论文中推广了这一概念 And Sunstein suggests in the article, more generally, that
认为在我们的诸多行为 诸多决策中 numerous of our actions, numerous of our decisions, are
我们都会受到内部和外部社会意义的驱动 driven at least in part by internal and external social meaning.
这就存在了一个 And that, as a consequence,
影响人类行为和决策的有效机制 an effective mechanism for influencing actions and decisions
影响着这些行为和决策的社会意义 is to influence the social meanings of those actions and decisions.
因此 他认为 政府有一个不可避免的角色 So that, he suggests, it turns out to be an inevitable role of government
通过肯定 引入 否定特定类型的社会意义来监管行为 to regulate behavior
通过肯定 引入 否定特定类型的社会意义来监管行为 by the affirmation or introduction or disavowal of certain kinds of social meaning.
在柏拉图关于审查制度的讨论中 And we address the issue of this sort of indirect
对这类行为非直接非理性控制的问题 我们进行了解答 non-rational control of behavior in the context of our discussion of Plato on censorship.
支付意愿同允许意愿之间具有差别 Now this distinction between willingness to pay and willingness to allow,
具体细节我们将撇开不谈 the details of which we're now going to set aside,
这种差别可以用来思考一个 can be used to think about one of the examples,
我们在课上讨论过很多次而且还要讨论的例子 which we talked about in many lectures and which we'll talk about again on Thursday.
也就是 很多人 包括你们 Namely, the fact that there is
在经典电车情况和胖子情况中具有不可否认的不同反应倾向 an undeniable tendency of people, this class included,
经典电车情况也就是 to respond differently to the classic trolley case,
你可以改变电车轨道 让电车不撞向5人 而是撞向1人 where one diverts a trolley from a track where it's about to hit five
你可以改变电车轨道 让电车不撞向5人 而是撞向1人 onto a track where it's about to hit one,
而胖子情况也就是 你将某个胖子推下桥 让电车不撞向他人 and trolley cases involving pushing someone off a bridge.
第一种情况中 你们中只有15%的人 So whereas the first one among you produced only 15% of you
认为让电车转向是禁止的 saying that it was prohibited to turn the trolley,
而第二种情况中 将胖子推下桥 the second case, the one where you're asked to push the fat man off the bridge,
杀死1人挽救5人 thereby killing one and saving five,
你们中却有78%的人认为这种行为是被禁止的 produced among you a 78% conclusion that the act was forbidden.
下一讲我们将讨论到如何调解 Next lecture we'll talk a lot about how to reconcile
对特定案例的直觉和更一般的原则性承诺 intuitions about particular cases with more general principled commitment.
现在我只想通过回答一些问题 But what I want to do now is just, by way of answering a couple of questions,
指出应对这种不对称的三种方式 point out to you three different ways
指出应对这种不对称的三种方式 that one might respond to what's going on in this asymmetry.
一是通过桑斯坦刚才介绍的说法 One might, making use of the vocabulary that Sunstein just introduced,
因为在胖子情况中 say that what's going on in the case of fat man
你被要求接受一定成本 is a case where one's being asked to accept a cost.
接受1人死的成本以挽救5人 Accept the cost of having one die in order to save five.
而在改变轨道的情况中 Whereas what's going on in the case of the switch
你被要求支付成本 is that one's being asked to pay a cost --
这一开始并不是计算的一部分 something that wasn't part of the calculus to begin with --
支付1人死的成本来挽救5人 pay a cost of having one die to save five.
我们知道就一般理论而言 And we know as a matter of general theory,
人类甚至非人类灵长动物都会认为 that the way human-- and perhaps even non-human -- primate accounting works,
接受某物的成本比支付以获取某物的成本要高 that that the cost of accepting something feels higher to us than the cost of paying.
也许 电车情况中 我们采取的同化方式 So perhaps what's going on in the trolley cases is that we are assimilating them,
使用了我们常用的启发式机制 by means of a heuristic mechanism that we often use,
将情况同化为我们熟悉的推理过程 to a familiar kind of reasoning process,
这可能体现了 也可能没体现我们的道德承诺 one that may or may not be tracking our moral commitments.
或者 也可能如案例最初的意图所示 Or perhaps as the cases were originally suggested to show,
我们不同反应中所体现的 what we're tracking here in our different responses is a
是侵犯权利和考虑效用的更深层次道德实际差别 deep and profound morally real distinction between violating rights and considering utility,
当情况中出现侵犯权利的问题 where in cases that violating rights comes into play,
让1人死或杀死1人来挽救5人 是道德上错误的 letting one die or killing one in order to save five is morally wrong.
当情况中没有侵犯权利的问题 Whereas in cases where rights don't come into play,
让1人死或杀死1人来挽救5人 是道德上可接受的 letting one die or killing one to save five is morally acceptable.
或者 也可能是这样的 Or perhaps what's going on in this case
如约什•格林在神经成像研究中所示 is, as Josh Greene suggests on the basis of his neuroimaging work,
一种情况中我们是情感反应 that in one of the cases we're responding emotionally
另一种情况中我们是理性反应 and in the other case we're responding rationally.
第一和第三种解释具有共同点 但第二种解释不是如此 What the first and the third, but not the second, response have in common --
也就是 胖子情况和普通旁观者情况中我们的反应具有差异 是因为 that is, what the two responses that suggest we should take as differentially informative
也就是 胖子情况和普通旁观者情况中我们的反应具有差异 是因为 our responses to the fat man case and our responses to the bystander case suggest --
思考一种情况时 is that in thinking about these cases
我们采用的主要是一种思维模式 we are thinking about one of them primarily with one mode of thought
而思考另一种情况 采用的是另一种思维模式 and the other primarily with another mode of thought.
课程中 我介绍过各种理论 这些理论都认为 And throughout the course, we have been introduced to the fact
课程中 我介绍过各种理论 这些理论都认为 that in every intellectual tradition there has been
人对世界的理解是多重方式的 a suggestion that human understanding of the world proceeds in multiple ways.
对此 当代学界采用了双重处理这种说法 The contemporary scientific vernacular of this makes use of the notion of dual processing.
也就是说存在两个系统 系统一和系统二 It suggests that there are two systems: System one and system two.
系统一在进化上较原始 同非人类动物共有 Where system one is evolutionarily primitive and shared with non-human animals,
而系统二进化上更先进 基本不同非人类动物共有 whereas system two is evolutionarily recent and shared, if with any animals at
就算共有 也只同与人类亲缘关系最近的动物共有 all, only with those closest to us in the evolutionary tree.
系统一是无意识或前意识的 而系统二是有意识的 System one is unconscious or preconscious whereas system two is conscious.
系统一是自动的 而系统二是受控的 System one is automatic whereas system two is controlled.
系统一是不费力的 系统二是费力的 System one is effortless whereas system two is effortful.
系统一很快 而系统二很慢 System one is fast whereas system two is slow.
系统一是关联性的 而系统二是基于规则的 System one is associative whereas system two is rule-based.
课程中 我们一直都在讨论 Now one of the things that we've done throughout the course is to look at
考虑这些差异的不同方式 various ways of getting at the distinction that this particular version gets at
但我们没有下定论说 哪种框架在所有情况中是最有用的 without trying to decide
但我们没有下定论说 哪种框架在所有情况中是最有用的 which of these frameworks is the one that's most useful in all contexts.
我们意识到 在有些领域 But rather, by recognizing that in certain domains
使用柏拉图的三分法更方便 it may be useful to speak, as Plato does,
精神和欲望朝一个方向 理性朝另一个方向 of spirit and appetite pulling in one direction and reason pulling in another.
有些领域中使用我的alief/belief说法更好 That it might be useful in some contexts to speak as I do of
alief导致特定非思考性行为 alief causing certain kinds of nonreflective behaviors
而belief导致特定思考性行为 while belief causes certain kinds of reflective ones.
有些领域中使用启发式的说法更好 That it might be useful in some contexts to speak of heuristics
启发式导致我们以一种方式反应 as causing us to respond in one sort of way
而完全认知 或者说思考 导致我们以另一种方式反应 and full cognition -- or reflection -- in causing us to respond in another.
我们还应清晰意识到 以上只是区分这种普遍差异的三种特定方式 But it's important to know that in picking out those three particular ways
我们还应清晰意识到 以上只是区分这种普遍差异的三种特定方式 that we looked at this overarching distinction,
还有很多其它类型的双重处理理论我们没有考虑 that we neglected to look at the many, many other sorts of dual processing accounts.
这里有15种理论 摘自我们一月中旬阅读的埃文斯论文 Here are 15 or so taken from the Evans article that we read in mid-January.
就我们这门课的目的而言 And that for the purposes of our discussion in this course,
这些观点的相似性比差异性更为重要 the similarities among these views are more relevant than the differences.
对我刚才快速讲过的一系列问题有兴趣的同学 If however, you are intrigued by the set of questions, which I've just quickly run through,
可以考虑选修相关课程 there are numerous places to go next.
大多数课程都属于认知科学 Most of the courses offered by the cognitive science program
考察于我刚才所讨论的这些问题： look at the sorts of issues that I've just been discussing.
人类推理如何受到脑结构特征的影响 How is human reasoning affected by structural features of the brain?
多大程度上能够系统化 To what extent can we systematize the sorts of
人类进行推理时的误差 errors that human beings seem to make in reasoning?
多大程度上 这些我们所谓的"误差" To what extent are those sorts of errors-- or what we call errors--
是人类在环境中生存的有效方式 actually effective means for navigating various sorts of environments?
这些问题还可以在 You can also look at these sorts of questions in the
社会心理学 认知心理学 发展心理学中考虑 context of social psychology, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology,
心理学明年将提供有各色课程 and there will be numerous courses offered in psychology next year
深入考虑我刚才提到的那些问题 that will go in much more depth into the questions that I've just been mentioning.
管理学院则提供行为经济学课程 The School of Management offers courses in behavioral economics,
面向具有合适背景的本科生开放 which are open to undergraduates who have the requisite background.
而在哲学系 And in the context of the philosophy department,
有关于柏拉图深入而严肃的历史性课程 there are historical courses that look seriously and in depth at Plato alone.
这学期其实还有一门专门探讨柏拉图《理想国》的课程 Indeed there's a course this semester that just reads Plato's Republic.
哲学系还有亚里士多德或其《伦理学》相关的课程 There are courses that at Aristotle or Aristotle's ethics.
还有我们考虑的其他哲学家的相关课程 Courses that look at each of the authors that we've been considering.
对这些内容感兴趣的同学 有很多课程可供选择 So intrigued by what we've just talked about, many places to go.
再看我想解决的第二大类问题 Second big cluster of topics that I want to address questions with regard to.
可能是因为这些问题比较新近 几乎三分之一的问题都是要我 I was asked-- perhaps because they came so recently-- by almost a third of the questions,
重新讨论诺齐克理论和罗尔斯理论的关系 to discuss again the relation between Nozick and Rawls
以及这些理论如何同霍布斯及社会契约理论联系起来 and to say something, perhaps, about how that fits together
以及这些理论如何同霍布斯及社会契约理论联系起来 with Hobbes and the social contract theory.
借用我同事托马斯•波吉的说法 So borrowing from my colleague Thomas Pogge,
将能很好地解释三者之间的差异 here's a helpful way for thinking about the difference among the three of them.
首先我将总览三者的差异 And I'll give you first an overview of the difference
然后尝试系统性解释 and then try to present you with a systematic explanation of just
霍布斯 罗尔斯 诺齐克三人理论的异同 where Hobbes, Rawls and Nozick are similar and different.
三者都属于社会契约理论传统 So all three of them are working in what is known as the social contract tradition.
三者都认为签约到某一社会结构中 All three of them are making the contention that it is in a certain kind of interest
对人类具有特定的好处 on the part of human beings to contract into a certain sort of social structure
哪怕这样做会放弃掉一些自由 even if in so doing they give up some of their freedom.
霍布斯认为 我们能明辨出签署社会契约的效用 Hobbes argues that it is of prudential utility for us to engage in a social contract.
作为一个国家的公民 我们都会过得更好 We are better off than we would have been had we not been part of a state.
但霍布斯所说的自然状态是纯粹虚构的 But the state of nature to which Hobbes appeals is a purely imaginary one.
这是一种假想契约 对其价值我们具有明断 It is a hypothetical contract, whose value to us is prudential.
罗尔斯认为 签署罗尔斯主义国家的社会契约 对我们具有道德效用 Rawls suggests that it is of moral utility
罗尔斯认为 签署罗尔斯主义国家的社会契约 对我们具有道德效用 for us to engage in the sort of social contract that the Rawlsian state represents.
我们假想自己到无知之幕后 处于最初始状态 We imaginarily go into the original position behind the veil of ignorance.
在这种状态下 我们得出一些道德价值原则 And in so doing come up with something morally worthy.
诺齐克同罗尔斯不同 关心事物实际如何形成 Nozick, in contrast to Rawls, is concerned with how things actually came into being.
不过同罗尔斯一样 诺齐克也关心道德正当性 But like Rawls is interested in what sort of moral justification that provides.
霍布斯的假设性契约 关心什么是精明的做法 So whereas Hobbes is interested in what a hypothetical contract
霍布斯的假设性契约 关心什么是精明的做法 tells us about what's prudential for us,
罗尔斯的假设性契约 关心什么是道德的做法 Rawls is interested in what a hypothetical contract tells us about what's moral
而诺齐克则关心一系列同道德相关的历史性事件 and Nozick is interested in what a certain historical set of events,
而诺齐克则关心一系列同道德相关的历史性事件 where that stands with respect to morality.
我们首先来看霍布斯的观点 So let's start by looking at Hobbes' argument.
霍布斯在《利维坦》中给出了自然状态这一概念 Hobbes presents us, in Leviathan with what he calls the state of nature. An
这种虚构生活状态中 "没有需要恐惧的普遍性力量" imaginary situation, what the "manner of life there would be with no common power to fear."
生活"孤独 贫穷 肮脏 粗野 短暂" Where life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short."
他认为 我们精明的目标就是摆脱自然状态 这对我们有好处 And he suggests that our prudential aim, that which is of use to us,
他认为 我们精明的目标就是摆脱自然状态 这对我们有好处 is to escape the state of nature.
为什么 Why?
因为我们所有人都"惧怕死亡 渴望舒适生活" Because all of us have a "fear of death, the desire for commodious living,
"希望通过不懈追求来获得这些" and the hope that by our industry we might obtain it."
但是 霍布斯认为 如果我们认为自然状态很糟 But, says Hobbes, that gives rise, if we think about the fact that being in the state of nature
这就会导致一系列理性所要求的结论 包括三点 is bad for us, to a number of rationally mandated conclusions, of which we examined three.
也就是霍布斯所说的自然法则 These are what Hobbes calls the laws of nature.
如果我们精明的目标是舒适生活 这些是理性所要求的 The things, which we realize rationality demands of us if
如果我们精明的目标是舒适生活 这些是理性所要求的 we have the prudential aim of commodious living.
也就是 如果有获取和平的机会 我们应该寻求和平 In particular, we need to seek peace if there's a chance of obtaining peace
若非如此 我们可以保留战争的权利 and if not reserve for ourselves the right of war.
这是第一自然法则 First law of nature.
我们需要同其他人一样 愿意放弃部分权利 We need to lay down our rights to the extent that others are willing to do the same.
这是第二自然法则 Second law of nature.
我们需要执行约定 履行承诺 And we need to perform our covenants, that is keep our promises,
假设其他人也都愿意这样做 assuming that others are willing to do the same.
但是这样做存在结构性问题 But there is a structural problem with our doing so.
这体现在囚徒困境之中 The structural problem is the one articulated by the Prisoners' Dilemma.
因此 霍布斯说 And because of that, says Hobbes,
要让我们按照理性所要求的方式行事：寻求和平 the only way that we can do what rationality demands of us: seek peace,
放下权利 执行约定 lay down our rights and perform our covenants,
从而按照所有法则的前半子句那样行为 thereby acting on the first half of each of these clauses,
唯一办法是构建一个具有绝对权威的政府 is if we institute an authoritarian government.
它具有足够大的权力 让囚徒困境中的不协作状态无法实现 A civil power sufficient to compel non-defection in a prisoners' dilemma.
注意这里的关键四步 So note the four key steps.
之后讲罗尔斯和诺齐克理论时我还会这样分析 Because I'm going to go through these next with Rawls and next with Nozick.
我们关心的是一个状态 一个目标 一个理性要求的结论 We're interested in a situation, an aim, a rationally mandated conclusion
一个结构要求的机制 and a structurally mandated mechanism.
罗尔斯怎么说呢 So how does it go for Rawls?
罗尔斯说 看 我们考虑如下假设状态 Rawls says, look. Let's consider the following hypothetical situation.
最初状态 我们处在无知之幕后 The original position, where we sit behind the veil of ignorance,
不知道自己在社会中会是哪种人 not knowing who we will be in society,
然后选择社会构建的基本方式 and choose the basic structures by which our society will be governed.
我们这样做的目标是给出 The aim that we engage in this activity with
一个正义社会所需要的限制条件 为什么 is the aim of articulating the conditions of a just society. Why?
因为"正义是社会制度的第一美德" Because "justice is the first virtue of social institutions
"正如真理是理论体系的第一美德" just as truth is the first virtue of theoretical systems."
政治哲学的目的在于 构建一种尊重我们道德规范的社会 It is the aim of articulating a political philosophy
政治哲学的目的在于 构建一种尊重我们道德规范的社会 to come up with one that respects our moral norms.
相比 霍布斯的目标 Just as it is Hobbes's aim
是给出支配正当政治社会的限制条件 in articulating the constraints that govern a legitimate political society
在尊重我们精明选择的前提下构建社会 to identify one that respects our prudential norms.
那么 在这种假设状态和特定目标下 What then is the rationally mandated conclusion
理性所要求的结论是什么呢 of taking this hypothetical situation and this particular aim?
罗尔斯的做法同霍布斯很类似 Well, says Rawls, just as Hobbes thought,
霍布斯思考了自然状态结构 thinking about the structure of the state of nature
通过理性 给出了三大自然法则 gives us, through rationality, the three laws of nature.
罗尔斯认为 考虑到最初状态的结构 So too does Rawls think, thinking about the structure of the original position
以及发展出道德社会的目标 我们得到了正义原则 with the aim of developing a moral society, give us the principles of justice.
也就是 第一平等自由原则 In particular, the first equal liberty principle:
任何情况下 个人根本权利都不能 that in no circumstances are the fundamental rights of the one
为更多人的效用而牺牲 to be sacrificed for the utility of the many.
第二 社会和经济若不平等 必须满足下列条件 And second, that to the extent that there are inequalities in the society,
即所有位置公平开放给所有人 those are to be associated with positions fairly open to all
而且生活最窘迫者也能从中得到好处 and in such a way that they are advantageous to the least well off.
罗尔斯除了考虑假设状态 道德目标 Moreover, Rawls thinks not just about a hypothetical situation and the moral aim
以及从中得到的理性要求的结论之外 and the rationally mandated conclusion that we can draw from that,
还考虑了社会应该具有怎样的机制 怎样的结构 but also about what sort of mechanism, what sort of structure
还考虑了社会应该具有怎样的机制 怎样的结构 that tells us society needs to have.
他认为 这样的社会大致具有平等性和基本权利义务 And his suggestion is that it becomes roughly one with equality and basic rights and duties.
具有言论自由 表达自由 思想自由 Freedom of speech, freedom of expression, freedom of thought,
每个人能够为社会整体的持续 平等地作出贡献 an equal responsibility to make a contribution to the upkeep of the community as a whole.
考虑到效率因素 And because of facts about efficiency,
罗尔斯至少愿意接受 Rawls is ready to, at least tentatively, endorse,
具有某种再分配机制的市场经济 作为有效机制 as one effective mechanism towards this,
具有某种再分配机制的市场经济 作为有效机制 a market economy with some tendency towards redistribution.
注意到 这同霍布斯进行论述的方式几乎是一致的 So notice that it is an argument almost parallel to the one that Hobbes makes.
首先是假设的状态 然后是目标 We take a hypothetical situation. We have an aim.
然后通过这些确定有哪些限制条件 We reason our way through the situation and determine certain sorts of constraints.
然后鉴别出相应的社会结构是怎样的 And then we identify what kind of social structure that gives us.
下面再来考虑诺齐克的观点 Let's look next at what that gives us in the context of Nozick.
诺齐克关心的不是假设状态 而是历史性状态 Nozick's interested, not in a hypothetical situation, but in a historical situation.
也就是说 他所关心的是 In particular, he's interested in what we should do about the
特定资源分配应该来自于一系列正义的转让 fact that a particular distribution of resources has resulted from a series of just transfers.
转让中 财产的获取要具有正当性 A series of transfers where property was acquired in a legitimate way
转让过程具有正当性 而不管产生的模式是怎样的 and transferred in a legitimate way regardless of what that pattern produced.
注意到 虽然我们只读了诺齐克关于所有权正义的讨论 Notice that although we read only Nozick's discussion of justice in holding
随后我们考虑了一个非常特定的问题 and consequently we looked at a rather narrow question
即什么条件下拥有财产是正当的 of under what conditions it is legitimate to own property,
其实诺齐克关于所有权的论断 that Nozick's argument with respect to holdings
可以被推广到任何人的决策情况中 can be generalized with respect to any sort of decision that people make.
诺齐克认为 让所有权具有正当性的是 What makes holdings legitimate on Nozick's picture
所有权是一系列正当过程的结果 is that they are the result of a legitimate process.
因此任何诺齐克所认同的契约都将落入相同的历史性范畴 And as a consequence, any sort of contract that we enter into in a way that Nozick will
因此任何诺齐克所认同的契约都将落入相同的历史性范畴 call free will end up being in the same historical category.
诺齐克所关心的问题是 So what Nozick is interested in is the question:
既然利益和义务分配是一种历史性偶发问题 given that things as a matter of historical contingency happen to end up the way they are
既然利益和义务分配是一种历史性偶发问题 in terms of the distribution of goods and in terms of the distribution of contracts,
那么这具有什么道德力量呢 what sort of moral force does that have?
诺齐克的目标是确定某种财产和义务分配是否合理 Nozick's goal is to determine whether this distribution of holdings-- that is property--
诺齐克的目标是确定某种财产和义务分配是否合理 and contracts-- that is commitment-- is a legitimate one.
他认为 只要财产是正义获取且正义转让得到的 And his suggestion is that as long as property is justly acquired and justly transferred,
任何分配结果都是正义的分配结果 then whatever distribution results from that is a just distribution.
我们考虑过诺齐克关于正义获取的概念 And you'll recall that we looked in some detail at Nozick's idea of just acquisition,
他认为 某种物品的拥有是正当的 where he basically says, an object is legitimately held
仅当该物品的获取过程中 拥有者加入了价值 if it was acquired in a way where the value that you add to the object
而且这种拥有不会让其他人比原来过得更糟糕 makes your possession of it leave others no worse off
而且这种拥有不会让其他人比原来过得更糟糕 than they would be had you not acquired the object.
而正义转让只要双方都是自愿的即可 And where just transfers are any that are engaged in voluntarily.
从威尔特•张伯伦的例子中我们了解到 One result of that, as we know from the Wilt Chamberlain example,
哪怕最开始的分配再完美 再平等 is that even if we begin with a perfectly even distribution of goods across individuals,
结果几乎肯定会得到不平等的分配状态 it's almost guaranteed that we will end up with an unequal one.
实际上 财产分配的讨论同样适用于义务分配 And notice that exactly the same sort of argument that can be raised
实际上 财产分配的讨论同样适用于义务分配 for distribution of property can be raised for the distribution of obligations.
诺齐克所关心的是历史性状态 So Nozick's interested in historical situation.
他有一个道德目标 即确定某种分配是否正义 He has a moral aim, namely determining whether the distribution is just.
诺齐克从这种结构中得出结论认为 And the conclusion that he draws, as a result of thinking about that structure,
对财产或义务正义分配的任何人为干预都是对权利的侵犯 is that any intervention into justly generated distribution of holdings or contracts
对财产或义务正义分配的任何人为干预都是对权利的侵犯 is a violation of rights.
在诺齐克看来 唯一确定所有权是否正义的 After all, the only things that matter to whether holdings are just, on Nozick's picture,
是获取及转让是否正义 is whether they were justly acquired of justly transferred.
而协作中存在的像公地悲剧这样的问题 And the fact that,
而协作中存在的像公地悲剧这样的问题 as a matter of coordination problems of the kind that we face in the problem of the commons,
以及这最终必然会导致的不平等分配结果 the fact that that will inevitably result in distributions that are unequal
诺齐克的历史性观点则没有考虑到 is of no concern to the sort of historical picture that Nozick has.
另外 根据历史偶发性 Likewise, the fact that as a result of historical contingency,
我可能通过契约从属于你 I may end up contracted in a way that leaves me subordinate to you
诺齐克认为 这没有什么不正义的 is, according to Nozick, in no way unjust
因为对正义产生的过程进行人为干预 because no intervention into a justly generated process
不可能不侵犯权利 can be performed without violating rights.
最后是结构要求的机制 So the structurally mandated mechanism
诺齐克认为这也就是最小国家 which Nozick ends up advocating is that of the minimal state.
我总结一下这些政治哲学家的观点 So what's the picture among our political philosophers? The idea is this.
霍布斯关心一种假想的自然状态 Hobbes is interested in thinking about what a hypothetical state of nature,
考虑一种精明而理性的目标 considered from the perspective of prudence, tells us is rational.
他从理性中提出了一些自然法则 What it tells us is rational are certain laws of nature,
强制执行机制只有引入具有绝对权威的国家才能奏效 the enforcement of which is possible only through the introduction of an authoritarian state.
罗尔斯让我们假想地考虑一种无知之幕状态 Rawls asks us to think hypothetically from the position of the veil of ignorance,
认为这是构建道德社会这一目标所必须的 what it would take for us to have a moral society,
结论是通过一系列正义原则来支配 concludes that it would be governed by the principles of justice, and
机制 由于这里没有太多空间 我简写作"瑞典" identifies as a mechanism what I've called, because there wasn't much room here, "Sweden."
诺齐克提出了一种历史性状态 And Nozick asks what we can do
认为实际分配应该是一系列公正转让的结果 given that an actual distribution arose as the result of a bunch fair transfers
结论说 如果我们的目标是尊重权利 and concludes that if our goal is to respect rights,
那么唯一正当的国家就是最小国家 then the only state which is legitimate is the minimal state.
我们接近花了四堂课讲政治哲学 So we spent roughly four classes on political philosophy.
如果想要了解更多该怎么办呢 Where to go if you want more?
哲学系提供了很多政治哲学课程 The Philosophy department offers political philosophy courses,
既包括概况课程 也包括各哲学家个人相关的课程 both survey courses and courses on each of the individuals that we've read.
你们可以选修从柏拉图一直到诺齐克的政治哲学概况课程 You can take a course surveying political philosophy from Plato past Nozick.
也可以选修单个作者相关理论的详细课程 You can take a course on any one of the individual authors.
类似地 政治科学系也提供了概况课程 The Political Science department, likewise, offers historically structured courses
以及单个作者理论的课程 and courses on our individual authors.
伦理 政治和经济系列出的几乎所有课程 Nearly every course listed in the Ethics, Politics and Economics department
都同我这张图表中所列出的问题有关 is a course that will address the kinds of questions that I just mentioned in this chart.
在经济系以及其它三四个系 And in the context of the Economics department and indeed in three or four other departments,
你们可以将经济中的博弈论或政策课程作为考虑这些问题的方式 you can think about game theory as a way of representing these structures
你们可以将经济中的博弈论或政策课程作为考虑这些问题的方式 or think about policy in the context of an economic framework.
已经11:19了 It's 11:19.
我将把道德问题相关的讨论放到周四的最后一讲 I will integrate the discussion of morality
我将把道德问题相关的讨论放到周四的最后一讲 and the answers to those questions into our final lecture on Thursday.
不过我希望 But it's my hope that
就算我不能回答今天收到的所有500个问题 even if I didn't answer all 500 of the questions that I was asked for today
这一堂课至少能帮你们把知识点捏合为一个整体 that the lecture gave you some sense of how some of the pieces fit together.
周四再见 And we'll continue on Thursday.