这一讲第一部分将 PROFESSOR: OK. So what I want to do in the first part of this lecture is
结束上次对自由的讨论 just finish our discussion of liberty from last time,
首先我将进一步讲清楚诺齐克的某些内容 beginning by saying a couple of additional clarificatory things
首先我将进一步讲清楚诺齐克的某些内容 about the particular pages from Nozick that we read,
然后我将解释一个重要内容 and then moving on to explaining what I think is an
诺齐克和罗尔斯也和其它思想家一样碰到了 important way that Nozick and Rawls are confronting one of
诺齐克和罗尔斯也和其它思想家一样碰到了 the problems that each of the thinkers that we have addressed has confronted,
运气决定人的经历这一问题 namely, the problem of luck in determining human experience.
这之后 我开始分析这一次的两篇实证论文 And when we finish that we'll move on to the two empirical readings that we did for today.
在我们所阅读的诺齐克选段中 So you'll recall that in the pages of Nozick that we read,
诺齐克首先给出了一般框架 Nozick is concerned, first of all, to present a general framework
认为政治哲学中首先应该考虑的是自由和权利 for thinking about political philosophy in a context which prioritizes liberty and rights.
特别是在我们所读的第七章中 And, in particular, in the pages that we read from chapter seven,
他提出了财产所有权正当性的理论 concerned with articulating a view about the legitimacy of the ownership of property
在原则上将正当性理由分为三个部分 that takes as its principal justification only three parts.
第一个部分是获取正义的概念 The first, you recall, is Nozick's discussion of the notion of justice in acquisition.
上一讲我讲了 诺齐克认为 And we talked last time about the conditions under which
怎么样获取的财产才具有正当性 Nozick thinks it's legitimate for somebody to come to own property.
基本思想是 And the basic idea there
正当财产是从无所有权的公共物品中获取 is that it is legitimate to take something from common stock that is unowned
前提是不违反诺齐克所说的洛克但书 so long as in so doing one doesn't violate what Nozick calls the Lockean Proviso.
也就是 "足够的同样好的东西留给他人" That is, so long as one leaves "as much and as good for others."
我们考虑了对这种观点的两种反对意见 And we considered two objections to that view.
一是 存在某种"拉链拉开"过程 One, the idea that there's a kind of unzipping that occurs
如果财产最终用完 这会让最初获取不正当 that makes even the first acquisition illegitimate if the property ultimately runs out.
二是公地悲剧相关的问题 And the second based on the problem of the commons, that
无论如何 会在某个时候 regardless there's going to be a time at which somebody
有人因为其他人获取所有权而吃亏 appears to be disadvantaged by another taking ownership,
我们还考虑了诺齐克对这些的反应 and talked about Nozick's responses to them.
我希望在这周的讨论课上 And it's my hope that in sections this week you'll have
你们能够讨论这些反应是否合理 a chance to think through whether those responses are legitimate.
之后我们考虑了诺齐克的转让正义观点 We looked next at Nozick's views on justice in transfer,
两个人之间自愿进行的转让都是正当转让 which are basically that any transfer that two people are
两个人之间自愿进行的转让都是正当转让 willing to engage in is a legitimate sort of transfer.
诺齐克认为 限制人们的自由是不正当的 It is an illegitimate restriction on people's freedom, on Nozick's view,
不应该限制人们对自身财产的处置权 to restrict what it is that you are permitted to do with your property.
但诺齐克意识到… 周二的课程我没讲这个 But Nozick recognizes-- and we didn't get to this in our lecture on Tuesday--
这之外还需要第三种概念 that in addition there's a need for a third sort of notion.
也就是说 某些情况下所有权不正当 And this is the idea that sometimes property is illegitimately acquired,
有可能是因为原始获取或转让不正当 either initially or as a result of an illegitimate transfer.
对于这种情况 他认为可以进行某种矫正 And that with regard to that, one is required, on his view,
对于这种情况 他认为可以进行某种矫正 to engage in some sort of rectification.
这就引出了上次我们读的那一章中 And this idea gives rise to a rather striking passage at the
末尾处的惊人段落 very end of the chapter, which we read for last week.
诺齐克认为 之前在获取和转让时可能出现非正义情况 Nozick writes there that as a matter of fact there have been
诺齐克认为 之前在获取和转让时可能出现非正义情况 previously in the acquisition of property incidences of injustice.
比如 美国建立在黑奴贩卖的基础上 This nation, for example, was founded on black slavery.
诺齐克注意到 现在社会上最窘迫的群体 And Nozick notes that those from the least well off group in society right now
很大可能都是这种极不正义历史的受害者后裔 have the highest probabilities of being the descendants of victims of the most serious injustice.
因此他认为 如下经验法则也许我们应该使用 As a consequence, he says, perhaps the following rule of
因此他认为 如下经验法则也许我们应该使用 thumb is a reasonable one for us to make use of.
也许我们应该按照罗尔斯所说的 Perhaps we ought to do what Rawls suggests
构建社会让最窘迫的人受益 and organize society to benefit the least well off.
诺齐克认为 过去的非正义如此严重 使得短期内 Past injustices, says Nozick, may be so great as to make necessary in the short run
比"最小国家"范围更大的国家需要被用来矫正这种非正义 a more extensive state than the one that Nozick has been advocating in order to rectify them.
《无政府 国家与乌托邦》第231页说 也许好的经验法则 Page 231, Anarchy, State, and Utopia, telling us that perhaps a good rule of thumb
就是组织一个让最窘迫者受益的社会 is to organize society to benefit the least well off.
那么诺齐克和罗尔斯观点一致吗 So do Nozick and Rawls agree after all?
注意到 诺齐克之前论述过 Well notice what Nozick argued earlier.
哪怕我们展开暂时性的重新组织 自由还是会颠覆模式 Even if we engage in this temporary act of reorganization, liberty upsets patterns.
给每个人相同大小的存钱罐 So give everybody the same sized piggy bank,
给他们自由支配财产的权利 give them the freedom to do what they want with their quarters,
最后情况肯定是 一些人比其他人更富有 and it will inevitably become the case that some are better off than others.
而且 如我们在上一讲末所了解到的 Moreover, as we noted at the end of our lecture last time,
这些财富分配最后可能会具有后果 these distributions of wealth may end up having consequences,
确定它们是否至少违反了洛克但书的精神 where deciding whether they violate at least the spirit of the Lockean Proviso
变成了一个很难回答的问题 becomes a rather difficult question to answer.
我们上一讲最后注意到 We noted at the end of our lecture last time that there
可能存在一个社会 其中每个人的财富平均分配 might be a society in which there's an equal distribution of wealth across individuals
制度中人们之间具有社会交往 and a social interaction among them with regard to the institutions
让人们成为民主的公民 that prepare people to become democratic citizens.
但如最后一张幻灯所示 But if, as our last slide demonstrated, it is
这种结构最终将不可避免地以财富不平均分配收场 inevitable that such a structure will ultimately result in an unequal distribution of wealth,
如果不平均财富分配 and if an unequal distribution of wealth
能够赋予脱离某些公共机构并成立私立机构的自由 brings with it the freedom of opting out of certain public institutions, creating private ones
那么这些私立机构将抽走原本属于公共机构的资源 from which one may draw away resources that once belonged to the public institutions,
这样一来 特别是对教育医疗这类 then particularly in the case of things like education and health,
被认为是民主参与前提条件的事物而言 which one might think are preconditions for participation in democracy,
分配的正当性就很难得到一致的认可了 it becomes complicated to think through whether those sorts of distributions are justified.
关于哪些行动被允许 诺齐克为我们提供了一套理论 So the Nozick picture presents us with an idea of what sorts of actions are permitted.
似乎在特定情况下 诺齐克赞同罗尔斯的分配观点 It seems for a moment as if Nozick agrees with Rawls that
似乎在特定情况下 诺齐克赞同罗尔斯的分配观点 a certain kind of redistribution is permitted.
但最终 框架中不存在某种方式 But ultimately there isn't the leverage within the framework,
至少不存在明显方式 来避免这样的情况 in at least an obvious sense, to avoid situations like this one.
是否将避免这类情况当作优先事项 是一个开放性问题 Now it's an open question whether one takes it as a
是否将避免这类情况当作优先事项 是一个开放性问题 priority to avoid situations like this one.
很惊人的是 《正义论》 But it is a striking fact of both A Theory of Justice and
和《无政府 国家与乌托邦》 Anarchy, State, and Utopia, that a look at their indexes
在索引中都没有提到教育 都没有提到小孩 produces no references to education, no references to childhood
只有对限定主题的关注 这将是我们今天讨论的中心 and only limited awareness of the topic, which will be central to our discussion today.
即周围社会结构除了影响我们的选择之外 Namely the ways in which the social structures that surround us end up affecting
最终还会如何影响我们的偏好 what sorts of preferences we have in addition to what sorts of choices we make.
你们应该记得这个基本问题 Now you'll remember that the fundamental question, which
让社会结构正当的是什么 underlies the debate about what makes a particular structure in society legitimate
罗尔斯在《正义论》开篇就阐述过 is the one articulated by Rawls in the beginning of Theory of Justice,
我将这作为期末论文的第二个选题 which I placed for you as the second essay topic for the final set of essays.
罗尔斯指出 社会是一个"互利的协作性事业" Rawls points out that a society is "a cooperative venture for mutual advantage
"同时表现出利益的冲突和一致" typically marked by conflict as well as identity of interests,"
注意到 追随霍布斯关于社会契约的理论 and notes, following Hobbes in the social contract tradition, that
社会协作中存在一种利益一致 让生活比不协作时更好 there's an identity of interests in social cooperation that makes possible a better life
社会协作中存在一种利益一致 让生活比不协作时更好 than anybody could have without cooperation.
但由于人们还关心分配 利益冲突在所难免 But a conflict of interests, since people are not
但由于人们还关心分配 利益冲突在所难免 indifferent to how those goods are distributed.
某些层面上 我们能设想罗尔斯和诺齐克争论的一个侧面 Now at some level we can conceive of one aspect of the debate between Rawls and Nozick,
罗尔斯认为 如果在无知之幕后 事物模式并非你所想要 where Rawls says, if things come out patterned in a way that behind the veil of ignorance
你就需要进行干涉和重新分配 you wouldn't want them to, intervene and redistribute.
而诺齐克认为 Whereas Nozick says,
如果事物是自由个体之间自由行为的结果 if things come out as the result of free actions between free individuals,
那么不管模式是怎样的 都应该接受 then regardless of what that pattern looks like, accept it.
两人观点之间的差别可以被看作 One can view that difference in outlook between them
是之前我们所讨论的一个问题的一例 as a difference in outlook about how we are morally required to
即确定我们所能控制之物和我们不能控制之物之间的区别 deal with the fact that in so far as things that affect us occur,
对两者之间区别的界定 determining what is and is not in our control,
影响到我们自己内心对事件的反应 in so far as it matters for our own internal reactions to events,
如爱比克泰德所述 as Epictetus pointed out.
影响到我们按照遵守承诺方式反应的倾向 In so far as it matters to our tendency to respond in keeping with our commitments,
这是多里斯质疑亚里士多德时的内容 as Aristotle and Doris in Doris's debate with Aristotle questioned.
影响到我们对非故意错事或对事的谴责和赞扬 And in so far as it covers our attribution of praise and blame
影响到我们对非故意错事或对事的谴责和赞扬 in cases of unintended wrongdoing or right-doing,
这是道德运气和惩罚部分的讨论 which the discussions of moral luck and punishment
康德vs密尔对救一个小孩是否具有道德功绩的讨论 and Kant versus Mill on whether there's moral merit to saving a child.
所有这些情况中 根本问题是这样的 In all of these cases, the fundamental question that's being asked is this:
若如爱比克泰德所述 "有些东西我们做得了主" what sort of stance is the appropriate stance for human beings to take,
"有些东西我们做不了主" 那什么立场才是人应该采取的立场 given that as Epictetus says, "some things are up to us and other things are not up to us?"
罗尔斯《正义论》中我们读到了如下惊人的文字 So if we look at Rawls's Theory of Justice, we read the following striking passages.
罗尔斯说 "我提到的两个原则" Rawls says, "The two principles mentioned," that is
也就是 权利不可被逾越的第一原则 the first principle which says rights are untrumpable,
大致说来 每个人都拥有特定的基本自由 roughly speaking, every individual is entitled to certain basic freedoms,
没有效用能够超越这种自由 which no amount of utility can override.
以及第二原则 And the second principle, which says,
不平等需要满足两个前提 即职位向所有人机会平等的开放 inequalities are to be distributed as the result of offices which are equally open to all
以及 这些不平等性需要符合最窘迫者的利益 and in such a way that inequalities are to the benefit of the least well off.
罗尔斯说 "我提到的两个原则似乎是一个公平协议" Rawls says, "The two principles mentioned seem to be a fair agreement
"在此基础上 禀赋更优或更幸运者" on the basis of which those better endowed or more fortunate in their social position
"虽然这不能说是应得的" neither of which we can be said to deserve,
"但当某种切实可行的方案" could expect the willing cooperation of others
"是所有人福利的必要条件时 能期望他人的协作意愿" when some workable scheme is a necessary condition of the welfare of all."
他还说 "一旦我们决定寻找一种正义概念" Or again, "once we decide to look for a conception of justice
"在不考虑自然禀赋和社会环境偶然性的前提下" that nullifies the accidents of natural endowment and the contingencies of social circumstance
"寻求政治和经济利益" as counters in quest for political and economic advantage,
"我们会被指引往这些原则" we are lead to these principles."
他还说 "这些原则所表达的结果 没有考虑社会中" Or again, "these principles express the result of leaving aside those aspects of social world
"从道德来看随意的方面" that seem arbitrary from a moral point of view --
"即我们不能被认为应得的事物" things we cannot be said to deserve."
自然禀赋的偶然性 Accidents of natural endowment.
社会环境的偶然性 Contingencies of social circumstance.
从道德观点来看世界具有随意性 Aspects of social world that seem arbitrary from a moral point of view.
罗尔斯采用了古老的方法思考道德运气 Rawls is engaged in the ancient project of thinking about how to deal with moral luck.
由于利益和优势的分配 And because the distribution of goods and advantages--
既在个人中又在个人之间 both within the self and between selves--
很多方面都不由我们说了算 is not in many ways up to us,
罗尔斯下结论说 他在《正义论》中所提出的原则 Rawls concludes that the principles that he articulates in Theory of Justice
是正义所要求的 are what justice mandates.
相对地 诺齐克也关注运气 Nozick, by contrast, is also concerned with luck.
我们来看一下第七章末的段落 Let's look at the passages at the end of chapter seven.
这里谈到了罗尔斯的作品 诺齐克说 Here, says Nozick, talking about Rawls's writing,
我们有罗尔斯否决自然自由系统的理由 we have Rawls' reason for rejecting a system of natural liberty.
它允许道德观点上看非常随意的因素 不适当地影响到分配份额 It permits distributive shares to be improperly influenced by
它允许道德观点上看非常随意的因素 不适当地影响到分配份额 factors that are so arbitrary from a moral point of view.
诺齐克说 罗尔斯试图处理道德运气的问题 Nozick says, Rawls is trying to deal with the problem of moral luck.
他引用罗尔斯的话说 这些因素是"天赋和能力的事前分配" These factors, he says, quoting Rawls, are "prior distribution of natural talents and abilities
"在时间长河中 在社会环境" as these have been developed over time by social circumstances and
"及意外和好运这种偶然因素中形成" such chance contingencies as accident and good fortune."
诺齐克说 注意到 罗尔斯关心不由我们做主的事物 Notice, says Nozick, that Rawls is concerned with things that are not up to us.
但是他没有提及 But there is, says Nozick, no mention at all
这些人如何选择开发自身的天赋 of how persons have chosen to develop their own natural assets.
诺齐克意识到 有些东西不由我们做主 也就是说 And it's in recognition of the counterpart oh some things being not up to us--
还有些东西由我们做主 namely the fact that some things are up to us--
我们可以看到诺齐克受这种永恒争论启发所形成的合理应得概念 that we can see Nozick's notion of legitimate desert in light of this eternal debate.
诺齐克批判罗尔斯说 这种论述 This line of argument, says Nozick in criticism of Rawls,
只通过将关于人的 can succeed in blocking the introduction of a person's autonomous choices and actions
一切值得注意的事物都归因于特定外部因素 and their results only by attributing everything noteworthy
会阻碍人的自治选择和行为及其结果 about the person to certain kinds of external factors.
如果我们按照这种观点的逻辑外延 But, says Nozick, if we start thinking about people as defined by their circumstances
开始把人考虑为 由环境所定义 in the way that a logical extension of this view would suggest,
但是 诺齐克说 "贬低人的自治性和行为主责" but says Nozick, "Denigrating a person's autonomy and prime responsibility for his actions
"对本应支持自治存在的尊严与自尊的理论是很危险的" is a risky in line for a theory
"对本应支持自治存在的尊严与自尊的理论是很危险的" that otherwise wishes to buttress the dignity and self-respect of autonomous beings."
我们回到了最根本的问题 We're back to our fundamental question.
既然我们由周围世界所影响 Given that we are beings influenced by the world around
而且这种影响方式异常难于理解 us in ways which it is extraordinarily difficult to understand,
对于我们感觉自己是自愿做的事 to what extent do we deserve credit for that
多大功劳归于我们 which we perceive ourselves to have done voluntarily?
多大程度上 我们的品性和环境 And to what extent are our characters and circumstances
同我们控制外的事物交织在一起 so inextricably linked with things beyond our control that
以致于将我们自身考虑为有意志者 thinking from the perspective of us as willers of structure in the world
是完全错误的 is a mistake all together?
我想指出 对税收正当性这些的讨论 So I want to point out to you that what started out as
我想指出 对税收正当性这些的讨论 looking like a debate about the legitimacy of taxation
本质上属于我们的中心哲学讨论 ends up looking like one of our central philosophical debates.
一次又一次我们碰到这一情况 作为世界存在 Again and again we're confronted with our status as
我们会影响世界 同时又被世界影响 beings in the world that we both affect and are affected by.
接下来30分钟时间 So that theme in two particular empirical articles
我将在社会结构讨论的语境中考虑两篇实证论文 is what I want to address in the remaining thirty minutes of lecture
我将在社会结构讨论的语境中考虑两篇实证论文 in the context of our social structures discussion.
这一政治哲学单元中 So remember that in this political philosophy unit we
我们从霍布斯的《利维坦》开始 began with a reading of Hobbes's Leviathan and
他给出了关于人性特定事实的论述 encountered his argument that because of certain facts about human nature--
我们希望控制周围更多事物 basically our desire to control goods around us
但事物的数量是有限的 and the limitation in the number of goods that there are--
因此我们在自然状态下会全面开战 we will in a state of nature be in a war of all against all.
之后我们从囚徒困境中看到这一问题的数学描述 And then we looked at a mathematical representation of that in the form of Prisoners' Dilemma
再之后 我们考虑了二十世纪西方英美哲学传统中 and then considered two particular responses in the 20th century Western
两大特定反应 即罗尔斯和诺齐克的观点 Anglo-American philosophical tradition-- namely Rawls and Nozick--
在人性事实的语境中 考虑怎样的社会才正当 to think through what a legitimate society looks like
在人性事实的语境中 考虑怎样的社会才正当 in the context of facts about human nature.
我在社会结构的这部分内容中 What I want to do in the part of the lecture devoted to social structures
希望让你们知道 我们周围的结构 is to bring out you the way in which the structures that surround us
会决定我们的态度 end up determining our attitudes
这至少同我们态度决定周围社会结构的程度一样大 at least as much as our attitudes end up determining the social structures around us.
这在亚里士多德的论述中就已经出现过 This is a theme that's present already in Aristotle.
一个月前我们读了《尼各马可伦理学》的结尾数页 So in the closing pages of the Nicomachean Ethics, which we read about a month ago,
亚里士多德在"道德向政治哲学的过渡"这一章中说 Aristotle, in a chapter entitled, Transition from Morality to Political Philosophy, noted,
"如果仅凭论述就足以让人们变好" you'll recall, that "if arguments alone were sufficient by themselves to make people decent
"那么他们所能掌控的益处 将无可厚非的多而大" the rewards that they would command would justifiably have been many and large."
但"仅凭论述很难改变" But that "it's not easy to alter by argument"
牢牢根植在人们心中的习惯 what has long been absorbed as a result of one's habits.
如果说仅凭论述不足以让人变好 How then, asks Aristotle, might we go about changing people
那我们该如何让人改变呢 if argument alone is not sufficient to make people decent?
亚里士多德指出 人若非从小在正确法则下长大 Well, he points out, it's difficult for somebody to be trained correctly from his youth
从成年后开始接受正确训练很难有效果 if he's not brought up under correct laws.
此时他无法理解有节制生活方式的乐趣 For the young do not find it pleasant to live in a temperate way."
这就是关于治理的古老概念 That is why one of the things on this ancient picture of governance,
法律能够帮助人们培养良好习惯 one of the things the law must prescribe is their upbringing and practices.
如果人们习惯于特定方式行为 他们就不会感到痛苦 For if they are used to behaving in certain ways they will not find them painful.
亚里士多德谈到的这一法律功能 将从这一讲持续到周四 So Aristotle is talking about a function of law that will occupy us both today and Thursday --
即法律能够为其治理下的公民塑造品性 the function of law in shaping the character of the citizens who are governed thereby.
不只亚里士多德这样认为 But it's not just in Aristotle that we find this theme.
《论自由》和《效用主义》作者约翰•斯图尔特•密尔 John Stuart Mill, author of the famous work On Liberty and
《论自由》和《效用主义》作者约翰•斯图尔特•密尔 also author of Utilitarianism, which we read for this class,
也同亚里士多德持有同样观点 makes much the same point as Aristotle.
他认为 要想合适地构建社会 He writes, in talking about how to structure society appropriately,
使得其产生的总效用量最大 so as to maximize the amount of utility that it produces,
他说 "效用要求 首先法律和社会安排" he says "utility enjoins that first that laws and social arrangements
"应该让每个人的幸福" 实际上这里也可以说是利益 should place the happiness-- or as speaking practically it may be called the interest--
"让每个人的幸福尽可能同社会整体利益相和谐" of every individual as nearly as possible in harmony with the interests of the whole."
密尔认为构建良好的社会能处理好 A well-structured society on Mill's view manages the
个人和群体之间的关系 relation between the individual and the community.
相应地 密尔认为 效用要求 And utility enjoins in keeping with that, says Mill, that
"教育和见解这些对人品性作用巨大的事物" "education and opinion, which have so vast a power over human character,
"应该被正确运用到构建每个人的心智中去" should so use that power as to establish in the mind of every individual
"在个人幸福和整体利益之间形成不可分割的关联" an indissoluble association between his own happiness and the good of the whole."
教育和见解对人的品性作用巨大 "Education and opinion, which have so vast a power over human character."
这就是今天这一讲的主题 That's the theme of today's lecture.
四张幻灯后 我们将使用点击器 And in about four slides we'll have clickers
这学期已经快完了 我希望你们保持清醒 because it's late in the semester and I want you guys to wake up.
你们可以拿出点击器了 我会讲一些事实 然后看你们的反应 So if you get your clickers out I'll tell you some facts
你们可以拿出点击器了 我会讲一些事实 然后看你们的反应 and then you can tell me some responses.
好 我们今天读的第一段材料 All right. So the first piece that we read for today
是行为和脑科学杂志上一篇很长的纵览性论文 is a long survey article from the journal Behavioral and Brain Sciences,
文中考察了近一个世纪的人类学和心理学研究 in which the authors survey a century's worth of anthropological and psychological research
尝试为密尔的论点提供实证支撑 in an attempt to bring empirical force to the claim that Mill makes here --
即教育和见解 文化结构 对人的品性作用巨大 that education and opinion, cultural structures, have a vast power over human character.
论文作者说研究对象是所谓的WEIRD人群 The authors argue in this paper that subjects, whom they call WEIRD,
即西方 教育良好 工业化 富裕 民主的公民 that is Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic, citizens --
这些人在具有如上五个特征的社会中长大并获得道德意识 people who have been brought into consciousness in a society which has these five features.
论文作者认为这些人是非典型的 They argue that these subjects are atypical,
也就是说 这些人同典型的人存在世界观上的根本差别 that is, differ in fundamental ways in their attitude towards the world
他们不同于小规模非工业化社会的居民 if you contrast them with subjects who come from small scale non-industrialized societies,
不同于非西方工业社会的居民 if you contrast them with individuals who come from non-Western industrial societies,
不同于其它西方工业化社会的居民 if you contrast them with individuals who come from other Western industrialized societies,
甚至不同于本国没受过高等教育的公民 and even if you contrast them with other citizens of their own nation
甚至不同于本国没受过高等教育的公民 who are not university educated.
论文作者认为 WEIRD群体具有奇特性(weird) In particular, claim the authors, the domains in which we can see the weirdness--
论文作者认为 WEIRD群体具有奇特性(weird) in small letters-- of the WEIRD-- in large--
即这些非典型西方 教育良好 工业化 富裕 民主的公民 that is the atypicality of Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic, citizens
具有奇特的感知 分类 记忆 include, they contend, perception, categorization, memory,
注意力 空间感知 自我概念 公正判断 attention, spatial cognition, self concepts, judgments of fairness,
协作意识 一致意识 道德判断等等 tendencies towards cooperation, tendencies towards conformity, moral judgments and so on.
在很多领域中 你们 In a vast number of domains, you--
包括你们中并非来自西方文化的人 including those of you who are not from Western cultures--
同地球上六七十亿大众差异非常大 differ from the vast majority of the 6 or 7 billion other people on Earth.
同历史上地球上曾存在过的人之间 差别就更不用说了 And certainly from the vast majority of those who have lived on Earth throughout time.
由于你们的文化体验 As a result of the cultural experiences you have had,
你们的感知 理解和注意力模式受到影响 your perception and apprehension and patterns of attention have been affected.
这篇文章的作者目的很明确 So the authors wrote their article with a particular goal in mind.
他们目标就是指出 心理学研究 They wrote it in an effort to argue that psychological research
在任何学术期刊上发表 包括刊登这篇文章的期刊 of the sort which fills journals, including the one in which they published this piece,
都应该基于更广泛的样本 should be based on broader population samples.
这是因为他们很关注 And they make this argument because they're concerned both
揭示人类之间差异的可能性 with the possibility of revealing differences among human beings,
考虑一种环境下成长的人同其它环境下成长的人有什么区别 ways in which people raised in one sort of circumstance differ from people raised in another.
而且因为他们非常关注 And because they are profoundly concerned with also
鉴别人类之间的共性 identifying the ways in which there are commonalities.
在阅读论文的过程中你们应当注意到 四节主要内容 And you'll notice as you read through the article that each of the four main sections
都是以WEIRD群体同其他群体的反差开始 begins with a series of contrasts between WEIRD folks and whatever the contrast group is,
但却以两个群体间的一系列共性结束 but closes with a set of identified commonalities between the two groups,
论文认为 至少初步来看 各群体之间存在深深根植的相似性 suggesting at least prima facie that there are deep-seeded similarities,
这也许是进化压力的结果 presumably the result of evolutionary pressures.
不过 这门课不是进化心理学课程 But this is not a course in evolutionary psychology.
这也不是一门心理学方法论课程 This isn't even specifically a course in the methodology of psychology.
那么 我们为什么要阅读这篇文章呢 So why did we read this article?
原因有四点 Four reasons that we read it.
第一是因为 这门课叫 The first is that this is a course, as you know, called
人性的哲学和科学 Philosophy and the Science of Human Nature.
这篇论文比我看过的任何论文都要深厚 And this article, perhaps more densely than any article I can think of,
包含了关于人类这一存在的大量有趣事实 contains a vast number of extraordinarily cool facts about ways people might be.
阅读这篇论文的第一个原因是 So the first reason we read the article is just to learn
为了学习人类的差异性和相似性 some facts about human diversity and similarity.
另外 这是一门交叉学科课程 In addition, as you know, this is an "and" course.
第一讲我就告诉过你们 This is a course, as you will recall from the very first lecture,
这门课试图从不同角度考虑问题 that's tries to bring together different perspectives on questions.
我们认为这篇论文做得很妙的一点就是 And one of the things that I think this article does beautifully,
特别是同今天我们要阅读的第二篇论文结合起来 in particular in conjunction with the second article that we read for today,
为中心问题提供了一系列思考工具 is to give you a range of tools for thinking about central questions.
这篇论文能激起你们思考 One of the things that the article challenges you to do
当你观测到一种行为并在此基础上进行推广时 when you observe a behavior and make a generalization on its basis is to ask yourself
这种行为到底能进行怎样程度的推广 how generalizable really is that behavior?
另外阅读这篇论文还有第三个原因 But this is also a course, and this is the third reason we read the article,
这门课是周二讲逝去之人 周四讲认知科学 而今天正好是周四 that introduces you, as you know, to a dead guy on Tuesday and CogSci on Thursday,
这门课是周二讲逝去之人 周四讲认知科学 而今天正好是周四 today being an honorary Thursday.
第三个原因是 这篇论文提供了一个鲜活的批判 So the third thing that the article does is to make you aware of a live critique,
实际上 这篇论文的发布还不到12个月 one posed just last year -- the article was published less than 12 months ago --
它所提供的批判针对了课程上用到的部分研究基础 to make you aware of a critique that attaches itself to part of the course's research base.
我们这学期一直在做的 One of the things that we have been doing throughout the
而且你们每个人在指导练习五中也都做过 semester, one of the things that all of you did in directed exercise five,
也就是考察一些论文 was to take a look at some of the articles,
这些论文的抽样都在这篇论文中受到质疑 whose limited samplings are being challenged in this piece.
最后 我们在政治哲学讨论中阅读这段内容 Finally, we're reading this piece in the context of our political philosophy section
因为我认为这对社会结构这一主题非常关键 in a lecture called social structures because it seems to me crucial,
我们需要深入到严谨的政治哲学中 if one wants to engage in serious political philosophy,
我们需要深入到严谨的政治哲学中 to bring out the complex range of considerations
考虑社会应该如何构建这一复杂的问题 that need to go into thinking about how societies ought to be structured.
这一讲的下半部分中 So what I want to do in the next part of the lecture is to
我将分析WEIRD论文所关注的三个案例 run through three examples of the sorts of cases with which the WEIRD article is concerned.
三个案例都认为 经历影响着你对世界的感知 Three cases where a claim is made that experience has
三个案例都认为 经历影响着你对世界的感知 affected how it is that you perceive the world.
我从最戏剧性的开始 And I start with their most dramatic.
也许不是最完善的 我会谈到 Perhaps not the most well established. We'll talk about it.
不过其主张是最引入注目的 But the most dramatic of their claims.
我希望你们拿出点击器 看这两条线段 So I'd like you to take out your clickers and look at these things here.
告诉我 你是认为两条线段中 And tell me, to you whether the two segments appear to be
上面一条更长 such that the top is shorter than the bottom
两条一样长 or it could be such that they are of the same length.
我讲的只是线段 We're talking about just the line segments here.
还是下面一条更长 Or it could be such that the bottom is shorter than the top.
倒计时 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 看看结果如何 And we'll take 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 second to see how these numbers come out.
41%的人认为 上面这个比下面这个短 So 41% of you think it appears that the top is shorter than the bottom.
46%的人认为两者一样长 46% of you, it appears that they are the same length.
还有14%的人认为下面这个较短 Whereas 14% are such that the bottom appears shorter than the top.
14%的人 把箭头去掉 你们是对的 14% percent of you, come on down, you are correct.
下面的确实较短 The bottom is shorter then the top.
想再看看吗 You want to see that again?
这里到底是怎么回事 All right. So what going on here?
下一张幻灯中还是一样的动画 I've got the same animation on the next slide because I
我不确定之前投票的幻灯能否放动画 结果可以 wasn't sure you could animate on a slide that had graphs. But it turns out you can.
再看一遍 OK, so again look at these.
这些是一样的 是复制的 These are identical. These are duplicates. I made them,
我测量过 PPT里有测量工具 I measured them because I have a measurement program in PowerPoint.
上面那个是3.1英寸 下面那个是3英寸 So this one is actually 3.1 and this is actually 3 inches long in the creation.
下面那个比上面那个短 So the bottom is shorter than the top.
有人论述说 你们之所以认为下面这个图像中的线段 Now it has been argued that your tendency to perceive this line,
比上面这个图像中的线段长 when embedded within this figure, as longer than this segment when embedded in this figure,
是因为你们是在构筑环境下长大的 is the result of your having grown up in an environment with carpentered corners.
这种论断是在1960年代研究基础上给出的 And the claim is made on the basis of research done in the 1960s
研究在对小规模非城镇化群体的大量调查后 in a vast number of small-scale non-urbanized communities,
发现对于线段长度的判断 that the discrepancy between line lengths, segment lengths,
小规模非城镇化社会对线段长度是否相等的判断同我们相差巨大 required in order to see this one as being the same length as this one
小规模非城镇化社会对线段长度是否相等的判断同我们相差巨大 is extremely different in small-scale societies where there is
根据这份研究 这些小地方的人更不容易被错觉所迷惑 roughly, according to this research, no tendency to be taken in by these extensions.
这是伊利诺伊州埃文斯顿 南非 To Western society-- this is Evanston, Illinois, and South Africa--
西方社会的人更容易被错觉所迷惑 a tendency to find this illusion massively compelling.
这些数据到底能不能成立还没有定论 Now whether or not these data ultimately hold up, it's complicated to determine
毕竟研究是接近50年前进行的 because the research was done almost 50 years ago
当时的调查研究工具 when the tools for asking these questions
同现在的标准有很大不同 held themselves to different standards than people hold themselves today,
不过这里的真实性也不是没有可能 it's nonetheless not implausible to think that this might be true.
经历能决定很多东西 Experience determines all sorts of things.
很容易理解 成长环境显然会决定人对世界的感知特征 And it's not unimaginable that among the things that it would determine
很容易理解 成长环境显然会决定人对世界的感知特征 is what sorts of perceptual features you pick up on when encountering a situation.
东方文化和西方文化下长大的人 It is, at the very least, undeniable that there are fundamental and interesting differences
不可避免在倾向上存在有趣且根本的差异 between the tendency of those raised in Eastern cultures
不可避免在倾向上存在有趣且根本的差异 and the tendency of those raised in Western cultures to avail themselves
这两种人具有两种截然不同的推理过程 of the two kinds of fundamental reasoning processes which are available to all of us.
从你们这次的阅读材料以及早些时候 So you know, both from your readings for today and from
双重处理理论阅读材料中 你们不难知道 our readings on the dual processing tradition earlier in the semester,
人类都具有整体处理的能力 that human beings are capable both of what is called holistic processing.
也就是将物体放入环境中考虑 That is orienting towards an object as embedded in a context,
关注聚焦物体和周围环境之间的关系 paying attention to relationships between the focal object and the field that surrounds it
根据相互关系进行预测并提供解释的倾向 and having a tendency as a result to make predictions and offer explanations
根据相互关系进行预测并提供解释的倾向 on the basis of these relational properties.
这是一种我们所有人都有的思考方式 So that's one kind of thinking. And all of us have it available.
除此之外 我们人类还有另外一种思考方式 即分析处理 But there is, in addition, a second kind of thinking, which
除此之外 我们人类还有另外一种思考方式 即分析处理 every adult human being has available to him and her: analytic processing,
也就是将物体单独出来 through which, one orients towards an object as considered in isolation,
专注于物体本身的属性 pays attention primarily to the object attributes,
而不管周围环境特性 not to features of its surround
根据这些本身属性预测和解释事件的倾向 and exhibits a tendency to predict and explain events on the basis of such attributes.
你们应该记得多里斯对亚里士多德的批判 So you'll remember when we were reading the Doris critique of Aristotle
多里斯认为不是个人本身的性质 and the suggestion was made that it's not features of the individual himself,
不是物体本身属性 not attributes of the object,
而是周围环境决定了人的行为是否符合道德 that determine how it is that somebody will act in a potentially morally demanding situation.
重要的是人同环境之间的关系特性 But rather features of his relationship to his context.
是否在电话亭中捡到硬币 是否赶时间 Whether he's found a dime in the phone booth, whether he's in a rush.
多里斯批评亚里士多德犯了基本归因错误 The claim that Doris makes in offering that critique of Aristotle,
多里斯批评亚里士多德犯了基本归因错误 a version of what's called the fundamental attribution error,
这种情况下分析处理会歪曲事实 is that there are cases where analytic processing leads us awry
整体处理的解释效果更好 and holistic processing does a better job of explaining.
同理 存在某些情况下 关注物体本身 There are, likewise, cases where focusing our attention profoundly on the object itself
而不关注无关的环境特性 将会更好 and not attending to irrelevant features of the environment will leave us better off.
很令人惊讶的是 It is striking, given that that there appear to be
西方和非西方文化中的成员 reliable and statistically significant differences over time
默认态度上似乎形成了可靠的 统计上显著的差异 in members of Western and non-Western cultures
默认态度上似乎形成了可靠的 统计上显著的差异 with regard to which of these attitudes they take on as a default.
大概近十年中 理查德•尼斯贝特及其合作者 So in a series of articles that have been written over roughly the last decade,
写了一系列论文 Richard Nisbett and a number of collaborators
他们向研究对象提供如下线索 have presented subjects with cues like the following.
研究对象会看到特定背景中的一系列鱼 They're shown a series of fish against a particular background.
然后是一系列新鱼 在相同或不同背景中 And then shown a series of novel fish, either with the same or different backgrounds.
或者一系列北极熊或麋鹿 在特定背景中 Or a series of polar bears or elk against a particular background
然后是新的或之前看过的物体 and then either novel or previously seen objects
在类似或不同背景中 against either a similar or different background.
那么熟悉背景 在辨别是否看过某个物体上 So what advantage do subjects demonstrate when they see an
能够为研究对象提供什么优势 object that they've seen before against a familiar background?
尼斯贝特和其合作者测试了日本人 For the Japanese individuals, whom Nisbett and his collaborators tested,
放在原来背景中的物体 辨识准确率高 an object seen against its original background yields a high accuracy rate.
不提供背景的时候 准确率低 If you show it without a background at all, there's less accuracy.
如果放到新背景中 准确率显著下降 And if you show it against a novel background, there's a striking decrement in performance.
对狼也是如此 And again with the wolves.
用原来背景时准确率高 If you show it against the original background, high accuracy.
用新背景时准确率显著下降 Show it against the novel background, a significant decrement.
规律非常明显 These are clean patterns.
西方研究对象是怎样的呢 What happens with Western subjects?
完全不同的规律 Different pattern altogether.
原来背景对辨识没有帮助 Original background doesn't help re-identification.
没有背景倒有很大帮助 No background helps a lot.
额外信息的分心此时没有了 The distraction of additional information has been removed.
新背景时的辨识率并不比原背景时差太多 And a novel background doesn't leave them much worse off than the original.
狼的情况也一样 Ditto with the wolves.
原背景有一些优势 但并不多 Original background produces some, but not much, advantage.
我准备跳过下一个例子 I'm going to skip the next example, which suggests, and
你们可以自己在我发布的幻灯中观看 you'll be able to watch this yourselves on the slides that I post,
这还是显示出 西方人似乎更擅长绝对任务 that again there are contexts in which Westerners appear to be better at absolute tasks,
非西方人则擅长相对任务 non-Westerners at relative tasks.
我们从这些文化的例子中能怎样进行推广呢 Now what sort of business do we have making these generalizations about cultures?
这样做是否会令人惊异 Isn't this an outrageous sort of thing to be doing?
其实这里的主张不是说 文化决定了个人的一切 The claim is not that culture determines everything about an individual.
这里的主张并没有这么让人惊讶 The claim is merely the unsurprising one
只是说 在特定环境下成长 that growing up in circumstances where your attention is,
人的关注方向会朝特定方式发展 as a matter of course, directed in particular ways,
这会让人同亚里士多德所说的一样 will lead you exactly in the ways that Aristotle suggested,
得到一些自然和习惯的反应方式 to find those ways of responding to be natural and habitual.
在这一讲最后的五分钟里 So what I want to do in the closing five minutes of the lecture
我将从WEIRD论文中给出最后一个例子 is to give you a final example from the WEIRD paper.
让你们了解美国人同其它西方人的不同之处 To run you through some of the cases on which the claim that
让你们了解美国人同其它西方人的不同之处 Americans stand out relative to other westerners on
特别是独立自我概念和个人主义这方面 phenomena that are associated with independent self-concept and individualism is based.
这都是一些点击器问题 So these are all clicker questions.
这些是至少15年前的一系列调查问题 And they are a series of survey questions that, at least 15 years ago,
这些问题在北美受过良好教育的研究对象 typically produced very different responses in North American educated subjects
和其它西方及非西方工业化国家公民中产生了非常不同的反应 than they did in citizens of other Western and non-Western industrialized nations.
实际上 研究中用到的是美国人 In particular, different responses among Americans than
同德国人 澳大利亚人 日本人之间的反应差异 they produced among Germans or Australians or Japanese.
我准备问你们一系列问题 So I'm just going to give you a series of questions.
看看你们的反应会怎样 We're going to see how your numbers come out.
我会将结果同最初研究进行对比 And we'll compare them to how those data looked in the original studies.
这是第一个问题 So here's your first question.
"你在边喝啤酒边和朋友讲话"… "While you are talking and sharing a bottle of beer"--
我知道 你们肯定都没这样做过 假设你会这样 I know none of you would ever do this, this is something to imagine for when you grow up--
"你在边喝啤酒边和朋友讲话" "when you are talking and sharing a bottle of beer with
"这个朋友是你所在公司负责安全控制的" a friend who is officially on duty as a safety controller in the company where you both work,
"一起事故发生 让一名轮班工人受伤" an accident occurs injuring a shift worker.
"国家安全委员会展开调查" An investigation is launched by the national safety commission
"并向你取证" and you are asked for your evidence.
"没有其它证人" There are no other witnesses.
"你朋友有多大权利 能指望你袒护他" What right has your friend to expect you to protect him?
"A 明确权利" A, a definite right.
"B 一些权利" B, some right.
"C 没有权利" 也就是说 你在接受调查时是否应袒护朋友 C, no right." So investigating commission, do you protect your friend?
看看你们怎么认为 Let's see how the numbers come out.
8%的人认为有明确权利 8% of you think there is a definite right.
48%的人认为有一些权利 48% of you think there is some right.
44%的人认为没有权利 And 44% of you think there is no right.
还是回到之前这些数字上 OK let's see whether we can get these numbers up again.
天啊 我想对比一下你们的反应 Gosh, OK, I was going to show you how your numbers compare
和研究中的传统反应 to the traditional numbers that were ascertained.
我将把这些幻灯发布到网上 What I'm going to do is leave these slides up for you as
和往常一样 你们可以自己进行对比 always and you can go and check the comparison.
在最初的研究中 美国人有94%选C The idea is that in the original studies, Americans showed, 94% of them in this column,
而你们有92%的人选B或C you show 92% of you in the two of these.
而在其它国家 人们的答案差异很大 Whereas if you looked across other countries, people gave different answers.
这里要考虑的不是 哪种答案合理 The claim is not that one or the other of these outlooks is a legitimate one.
而是让你们意识到一个事实 The claim is just to alert you to the fact that there are
人们的世界观存在巨大差异 radical differences in how people think about the world.
再看下一个 Let's try the next one.
我不知道这里为什么会显示 So I don't know why we've got the reveal here.
不要管这里显示出的数字 So don't pay no attention to the numbers that appear here.
你认为是A 公司的唯一目标就是获取利润 Do you think "that only real goal of a company is to make a profit?
还是B 除了获取利润之外 Or do you think B, that a company, besides making a
公司还应照顾其他利益相关者的利益 profit has the goal of attaining the well-being of various stakeholders
比如雇员 股东等人的利益 such as employees, stockholders and others?"
你们的数字显示 公司还应有其它目标 Your numbers suggest a tendency to think that it has other goals as well.
不过有33%的人认为获利是唯一目标 But 33% of you think the only goal of a company is profit.
1993年的日本公民调查中 这个数字只有8% 你们是33% Among Japanese citizens surveyed in 1993, only 8% sat where 33% of you sit.
当你到一个公司求职时 你是认为 "If you apply for a job in a company," is your thought,
一 你将一生都在此公司工作 "one, that you will almost certainly work there for the rest of your life?"
还是二 这种工作关系的时间几乎肯定是有限的 Or is your thought that "you are almost sure that the relationship will have a limited duration?"
看看结果 Let's see how these look.
8%的人认为自己将一生在一个公司工作 8% of you think you will work there for the rest of your life.
92%的人认为期限是有限的 92% percent, limited duration.
你们同研究中美国人的观点一致 By contrast, if you look at the numbers here, you are with the Americans.
而日本人有60%认为应该一生在一个公司工作 60% of Japanese asked that similar question gave the answer that you did.
一次又一次研究中 都出现了这样的情况 Over and over and over again-- and I'll leave you three more examples on the slide to look at--
幻灯上还有三个例子 你们可以自己看看 you see that whatever it is that you are like --
如果你属于59%的日本人 你同美国人很不同 if you are like the Japanese with 41% you were different from the Americans,
如果你属于99%的美国人 你同日本人很不同 if you were like the Americans with 99%, you were different than the Japanese --
文化环境在你的世界观形成中影响非常大 the cultural environment in which you find yourself plays a role in determining your outlook.
下一讲我将进一步讲这些内容 And we'll begin next lecture with an acceleration of a particular version of this
配合凯斯•桑斯坦关于社会规范的讨论 in the context of Cass Sunstein's discussion of social norms.
提醒一下 周四是"斗牛犬日" Let me remind you that Thursday is Bulldog day.
可能的话 你们尽量坐到教室的这一侧 And if possible, if as many of you as can will sit over on this side of the room
留出座位给访客 我们会很感谢你的配合 to leave seats for our visiting students, that would be much appreciated.