今天我要让你们感觉学费交得值 So today I'm going to give you your money's worth in the
有些人选修这门课可能是为了 sense that some of you might be taking this class to see
考虑自己以后是不是还要选其它哲学课程 whether you would want to take another philosophy class at some point in the future.
我们这门课在很多方面 And though a lot of what we've been doing in this class is
同其它典型哲学课差别不大 typical of what one would do in a philosophy class, one of
只是我们没有细致解读哲学作品中的内容 the things of which we haven't done that much is close
只是我们没有细致解读哲学作品中的内容 reading of extended passages from texts.
所以 今天我想按组细致分析… And so what I want to do today is to read through as a
我讲你们听 这并不是真正的分组 group--which means I talk and you listen, so it's not really a group.
不过我讲 你们可以冲着我笑 But read through with you all out there smiling back at me,
仔细分析亚里士多德伦理学的特定部分 卷二第四章 one section of Aristotle's Ethics, in particular Book two Chapter four,
然后将这同我们这次阅读中读到的两种反应联系起来 to try to situate for you the two responses that we read for today
这都例证了课程的主题 that both exemplify the theme of the course.
在这一讲最开始的1/4到1/3 So roughly the first quarter to third of lecture
我将细致分析亚里士多德的选段 will be going through this passage from Aristotle.
我会把文字放上去 然后进行分析 I'll put the text up for you and I'll talk you through it.
然后 我会将这同我们读过的两篇文章联系起来 And then what I want to do is to bring out to you how it is that the two articles we read
针对亚里士多德作品中非常特定的内容进行讲解 for today pick up on very specific and very precise portions of the Aristotelian text.
我说了 我们会细致分析 So as I said, we're going to be looking closely at
亚里士多德《尼各马可伦理学》的内容 something in the book that we've been reading from Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics.
特别地 我不断提到 亚里士多德认为 In particular, we have heard many times recitation of Aristotle's
品格美德是通过习惯化形成的 claim that virtues of character are acquired through habituation.
就像通过练习演奏竖琴 让人成为竖琴演奏者一样 That just as one becomes a player of the harp by playing the harp,
通过像正义者那样行事 也能让人成为正义者 so too one becomes just by acting as the just one does,
通过像勇敢者那样行事 也能让人成为勇敢者 brave by acting like the brave one does.
不过亚里士多德自己也意识到 这还不够 But Aristotle himself realizes that this cannot be the full story
他在卷二第四章中开始讨论到这一点 and he begins his discussion in Book two Chapter four
这部分我们读过两次了 something that we've read twice already in this class--
几周前一次 周二又读了一次 once a few weeks ago and reread for Tuesday.
亚里士多德说 有些人可能会被搞糊涂 Aristotle remarks that someone might be puzzled by what we
什么叫通过正义行为来成为正义者 mean by saying that we become just by doing just actions and
通过有节制行为成为有节制者 temperate by doing temperate actions.
有些人可能会认为 For one might suppose that if we do
做正义或有节制的事就能算正义者或有节制者 just or temperate actions we are thereby, just or temperate.
亚里士多德希望矫正对他思想的错误理解 Aristotle wants to correct a possible misconception of what it is that he's claiming.
特别地 他希望指出 做正义或有节制的事 In particular, he wants to point out that although it is a necessary condition
只是成为正义者或有节制者的必要条件 on being just and temperate that one do just and temperate actions,
而不是充分条件 it's not a sufficient condition.
也就是说 做正义或有节制的事 That is, although it's a requirement to be just and temperate
是成为正义者或有节制者所必需的 that you have to act in the way that the just or temperate person does,
但仅仅这些还不够 it's not enough to do that.
还需要其它一些东西 You need some other things in addition.
今天 我们将提炼出我们已有的认识 And what we're doing today is refining the understanding that we've gotten already.
通过之前的学习 我们已经知道 亚里士多德认为 We knew already from the previous readings and lectures that Aristotle says:
要想成为正义者 你必须按照正义者那样行事 in order to be just you have to act as the just one does
让自己习惯于这类行事方式 and habituate yourself to that sort of action.
现在 他还将告诉我们 正义 节制这些美德的各种附加条件 And now he's going to give us some additional conditions on
现在 他还将告诉我们 正义 节制这些美德的各种附加条件 justice, temperance and the other virtues.
他说 "要想让行为有节制或正义" So he says, "for actions to be done temperately or justly,
"行为自身具有正确特质还不够" it does not suffice that they themselves have the right qualities.
"行为主体在行为时还必须处在正确状态" Rather the agent must also be in the right state when he does them."
亚里士多德是什么意思呢 Now what could Aristotle mean by that?
要想让行为有节制或正义 What does he mean by saying for an action to be done justly,
行为自身具有正确特质还不够 it does not suffice, it's not sufficient, for the action to have the right qualities.
行为主体在行为时还必须处在正确状态 是什么意思 In addition, the agent has to be in the right state when he does it?
想想 假设我按照有节制的方式行事 Well suppose I act in a temperate fashion simply
仅仅是因为没有无节制方式行事所需的资源 because the resources required for me to act in an intemperate fashion aren't available.
比如我不喝巧克力牛奶 Suppose the reason that I refrain from drinking the chocolate milk that's
仅仅是因为冰箱里没有巧克力牛奶可喝 typically in my fridge is because there's no chocolate milk in my fridge for me to drink.
我周六晚上没去参加派对 Suppose the reason that I refrain from going to a party on Saturday night
仅仅是因为根本就没有派对举行 is because there are no parties available for me to go to.
这种情况 在亚里士多德看来 虽然我按照有节制者的做法做了 I have in that case, says Aristotle, acted as the temperate person would.
但我做的时候并不是因为自己处在正确的状态 But I haven't done so as the result of being in the right state.
再比如 我本想将某物给所有者以外的别人 Or I might, intending to give an object to somebody to whom it doesn't belong,
结果不小心弄错 还给了真正所有者 mistakenly return it to its rightful owner.
虽然我把物体还给了正确所有者 If I do that, I return the object to its rightful owner.
我的做法和正义者做法一样 I act as the just person would.
但我这样做的原因并不正确 But I don't do so for the right reason.
亚里士多德认为 如果按照有节制的方式行为 Aristotle wants to say that if you're temperate only because
仅仅是因为你没有按无节制方式行为的机会 you don't have the opportunity to act in an intemperate way,
有机会的话你会那么做 but that if you had that opportunity you would, and
如果按照正义者的方式行事 不是因为你想成为正义者 that if you act as the just person would not because you're aiming to be just,
而是因为手头的信息错误 but only because you've got faulty information,
那么你的行为就不能算作是他所讲的美德 your activity doesn't count as an instance of the virtue with which he is concerned.
亚里士多德认为 有三个条件需要满足 In particular, Aristotle says that there are three conditions that you need to satisfy
你的正义行为才能算作美德上正义的行为 for your just act to count as a virtuously just act
或者有节制行为算作真正有节制行为 等等 or your temperate act to count as a temperate act and so on.
一 需要在知道这是美德的前提下行为 First, you need to do the action knowing that you're doing something virtuous.
二 你之所以决定这样做 就是因为这样做是美德 Second, you need to decide to do the action exactly because doing so is virtuous.
三 这种行为需要是他所说的"坚定而不变的状态" And third, you need to do so from what he calls a "firm and unchanging state."
第一个条件也就是说 你做事的时候 So the first condition is that the reason that you be in a situation
知道怎么做是美德 where you know what act is the virtuous one.
第二个条件是 你选择它 因为它是美德 The second is, you choose it because it's the virtuous one.
第三个条件是 你的行为是始终一致的 And the third is that your choice isn't a one off thing
不会有时这样做有时不这样做 which is happening in this situation, but not in others.
你的行为方式是由于你品格状态所决定的 始终如一 But rather that your choice is expressive of, indicative of,
你的行为方式是由于你品格状态所决定的 始终如一 arising from a state of character that you have that persists over time.
我等下会讲到一些例子 And I'll give some examples in a minute.
亚里士多德总结说 Aristotle says in summation that
"行为 只有按正义者" "actions are called just or temperate
"或有节制者的方式行事时 才能被称为正义或有节制的" when they are the sort that a just or temperate person would do"
正义者或有节制者不仅仅是有这种行为的人 where the just or temperate person is not the one who merely does the actions,
而是"按正义者或有节制者的方式行事"的人 but the one who does them "in the way that the just or temperate person does them."
于是 这给我们留下的问题就是 So the question that that leaves us with is this: what
正义者 有节制者 勇敢者或有其它美德的人 其行为方式是什么 is the way that a just or temperate or brave or otherwise virtuous person does those acts?
我将通过勇敢的例子来分析 So let's run through it with the example of bravery,
如何满足亚里士多德的这三个条件 how it is that we might satisfy the three Aristotelian conditions?
第一个条件是 行为时你需要知道行为是美德 The first condition you recall is that you have to do the action knowingly.
假设我在战场上 So suppose I'm out there on the battlefield
我知道有两组士兵 and I know that there are two groups of soldiers--
一组勇敢 一组怯懦 the brave ones and the cowardly ones.
我认为自己没有必要拿自己的生命冒险 And I am totally clear that I have no interest whatsoever in risking my life.
于是我决定按照怯懦士兵的做法行事 So I make the decision that my plan is to do whatever the cowardly soldiers do.
我将自己置身于我认为怯懦的这群士兵中 And I set myself up in such a way that I put myself in the
我将自己置身于我认为怯懦的这群士兵中 middle of a group of people whom I take to be cowardly soldiers
照着他们的做法做事 and I follow along with what it is that they're doing.
如果我不小心错把勇敢士兵当成了怯懦士兵 If it turns out that I have mistakenly selected a group of brave soldiers to imitate
我选错了本想效仿的组 rather than a group of cowardly soldiers to imitate,
结果我会同勇敢士兵采取相同的行为 I will perform a behavior that is the same behavior that the brave person would,
但我没有按照勇敢者的"方式"行事 but I won't perform it in the way that the brave person did.
我以为自己效仿的是怯懦士兵 I thought that I was imitating the cowardly soldiers,
但由于选错组 我不小心效仿了勇敢士兵 but because I was mistaken about who the brave ones were and who the cowardly ones were,
不小心效仿了勇敢士兵的行为 I mistakenly imitated an action that turned out to be brave.
亚里士多德说 这不算美德 Aristotle says: No credit. No credit for virtuous action.
第二个条件是 除了知道哪种行为是美德 哪种不是以外 还需要 The second requirement is that in addition to knowing which
第二个条件是 除了知道哪种行为是美德 哪种不是以外 还需要 action is the virtuous one and which is the non-virtuous one,
正因为这是美德 我才决定采取这种行为 I have to decide to perform the action because it's virtuous.
还是假设我在战场上 So suppose now I'm in a similar situation. I'm out on the battlefield.
我知道哪组是怯懦之组 哪组是勇敢之组 I know which group is the cowardly group and I know which group is the brave group
不过因为想获得好的声誉 我才决定效仿勇敢士兵的行为 and I decide because I want to get a good reputation that I will do as the brave soldiers do.
我知道怎么做是勇敢的 So I'm knowingly performing an act that is brave,
但我不是因为勇敢本身 而采取这样的行为 but I'm not performing the act that is brave because it is brave,
我是因为想表现出美德才这样做 because in so doing I will express a virtue,
因为想要实现亚里士多德强调的理想状态才这样做 because in so doing I will bring to fruition this ideal state that
因为想要实现亚里士多德强调的理想状态才这样做 Aristotle has emphasized the importance of.
因为想获得奖章才这样做 I'm doing it because I'm interested in getting a medal.
因为希望获得好的声誉才这样做 I'm doing it because I'm interested in getting a good reputation.
亚里士多德说 虽然我做的事正确 Aristotle says, even if I do the right thing,
虽然我知道这是正确的行为 even if I do the right thing knowingly,
但由于动机不纯 这算不上美德 if I do it with the wrong motivation in mind. No credit.
第三个条件 亚里士多德说 要让一种行为算作美德 Third, Aristotle says that in order for an action to count as an expression of virtue,
我不仅要知道什么行为是美德 不仅要有正确动机 I not only have to do it knowingly and for the right reason,
我还需要表现得始终如一 I have to do it in such a way that it expresses
让这成为我品格特性的一部分 a characterological feature of mine that extends over time.
想想 如果我只决定在这一次勇敢作战 So suppose that I just this once decide to act brave for the sake of being brave,
而通常我都是胆怯行事 even though usually I tend to act in a cowardly way.
亚里士多德说 虽然我是有意为之 Aristotle says even if I do it knowingly,
虽然我确实是因为勇敢本身而行为 even if I do it under the description brave act, which I'm doing for its own sake,
但由于这不能表现出我的连续品格 if in so doing I don't express a continuous feature of my character
我不能每次都表现出这种勇敢 这算不上美德 that leads me to do this typically in circumstances requiring bravery, no credit.
实际上 亚里士多德还给出了第四个条件 And in fact, Aristotle imposes a fourth condition as well.
第四个条件表述在卷二第三章最开头 And that fourth condition is articulated in the opening paragraph of Book two Chapter three.
它是这样的 And it reads as follows,
"一个人行为后的快乐或痛苦也应被作为他状态的信号" "We must take someone's pleasure or pain following on his actions to be a sign of his state.
"如果某人能从节制肉体享乐中享受乐趣 他就是有节制的" If someone who abstains from bodily pleasures enjoys the abstinence, he is temperate.
"如果他悲痛 那他就是无节制的" If he's grieved, he is intemperate.
"如果他能坚定面对恐惧且不觉得痛苦 那他就是勇敢的" If he stands firm against terrifying situations and does not find it painful, he is brave.
"如果他觉得痛苦 那他就是怯懦的" But if he finds it painful he is cowardly."
回到我们的列表 So let's go back to our list.
在阿里士多德看来 能算作美德的行为 In order for an action to count as virtuous on Aristotle's picture,
你要知道这是一种具有美德的行为 you have to do it knowing that it's the virtuous act.
你是因为美德本身而这样行为的 You have to do it because it's the virtuous act for its own sake.
这样行为是你始终如一品格特性的结果 You have to do it as an expression or result of a standing character feature that you have.
而且你要能享受其中乐趣 And you have to do it with enjoyment.
你不能在做的时候感觉是迫不得已 You have to do it in such a way that it doesn't feel to
你不能在做的时候感觉是迫不得已 you like it's an imposition to act that way.
亚里士多德所说的勇敢者 知情地 The brave person on Aristotle's view is the person who knowingly,
为了勇敢本身 始终如一地 for the sake of being brave, regularly, and
带着快乐地 按勇敢者的方式行为 with pleasure acts as the brave person does.
下周四 我们会看到质疑条件一和条件二的伦理理论 Now next Thursday, we will start looking at an ethical theory which challenges one and two.
我将讲解一种伦理理论 结果主义 We're going to look at an ethical theory, consequentialism.
它的一种特定版本 功利主义 A particular version of it, utilitarianism
这种理论认为 行为的道德价值 which says that the moral worth of an act
同行为人是否知晓或意图如何毫无关系 doesn't depend in any way on the knowledge or intentions of the person performing the act.
我们这次阅读的内容分别考虑了条件四和条件三 The texts we read for today consider respectively the fourth and third condition.
朱莉娅•安纳斯所提出的问题是 So the text that we read from Julia Annas asks the question,
满足亚里士多德的条件四是什么意思 what does it mean to satisfy Aristotle's fourth condition? What does it mean?
按照美德行事的人需要在行事时感觉到快乐 意味着什么 What does it feel like to be an individual for whom the
按照美德行事的人需要在行事时感觉到快乐 意味着什么 performance of acts in accordance with virtue is something that one does with enjoyment?
而我们这次读到的另一部分内容来自约翰•多里斯 And the other text that we read for today--the John Doris text--
他怀疑 要让行为成为美德 calls into question whether the idea that in order
是否一定要处在"坚定而不变的状态" for an act to be virtuous it has to come from a firm and unchanging state,
他认为这里存在关于人类心理的错误假设 presupposes something faulty about human psychology.
这次我们读的两段文字都来自于对 So the two texts that we're reading for today actually come straight out of a careful
《尼各马可伦理学》卷二第四章的细致审视 understanding of what's going on in Book two Chapter four of The Nicomachean Ethics.
我准备转向这些文字 So I'm going to turn now to those texts, but before I do
但之前 我想确认一下 你们是否都明白了这四个条件 so I'm going to check that everybody's clear on where we got these four requirements
知道这些条件为原来我们所谓的 on what it is that they add to the initial idea that
勇敢 正义 有节制等行为 we become brave by doing brave acts, just by doing just acts,
增加了什么 temperate by doing temperate ones.
看你们是否都明白了 这是如何从亚里士多德作品中得出的 And that people are clear how that came out of the Aristotelian text that we're looking at.
在继续讲课之前 有问题吗 So questions before we move on?
好 首先是古代哲学学者朱莉娅•安纳斯的论文 All right, so the paper that we read by Julia Annas, who is a scholar of ancient philosophy,
她问 亚里士多德理论下的善者应该是怎样的 asks the following question: what would it be like to be an Aristotelian good person?
也就是说 亚里士多德美德的现象论是怎样的 That is, what is what's sometimes called the phenomenology--
也就是说从内部感觉是怎样的 the what it feels like from the inside--of Aristotelian virtue?
亚里士多德说勇敢者是行为勇敢而又不因勇敢感到痛苦 Aristotle's told us that the brave person is the one who
亚里士多德说勇敢者是行为勇敢而又不因勇敢感到痛苦 acts brave without feeling pain at the bravery, who finds
自然而快乐地按具有美德者的方式行为的人 it natural and pleasurable to act as the virtuous person does.
安纳斯的问题是 这从内部感觉是怎样的 Annas' question is what does that feel like from the inside?
她的答案是 从内部感觉 这是一种内部和谐 And her answer is now what it feels like from the inside is the kind of internal harmony
这是这单元课程中我们讨论过很多次的内容 that we've been talking about in many of the lectures in this unit of the course.
"实践美德是具有美德者内部" "Exercising virtue is something that in the virtuous person
"所包含的感觉和深思的和谐" involves a harmony of feelings and deliberations,
"而不是对倾向的克服感" rather than a feeling of overcoming inclinations."
这存在于一种内在和谐状态 It is to be in a state of internal harmony.
人的思考承诺 人的本能 人对周围世界的理解 One's reflective commitments, one's instincts, one's apprehension of the world around one,
人对环境的关注模式 所有这些 the patterns of attention that one has to the environment, all of those
全部和谐统一起来 让人甚至感觉不到 comes together in such a way that it doesn't even feel like
还有别的替代可能性可供思考 one is contemplating an alternate possibility.
亚里士多德认为的勇敢者不会在战场上想 The brave person on the Aristotelian picture doesn't stand on the battlefield and think,
"我得想想勇敢者会怎么做 怯懦者会怎么做" huh, I wonder what the brave person should do and what the cowardly one should do.
"怯懦的做法很有诱惑 但我想我应该避免它" Oh, that cowardly thing is so tempting, but I guess I'll avoid it.
勇敢者站在战场上 按照上一讲的说法 The brave person stands on the battlefield and--like the
已经将规范性法则转换为了描述性法则 person who has turned a normative law into a descriptive one from last class--
他的感觉是 除了勇敢行为 他没有别的选择 feels as if there's nothing else to be done than the brave action.
在亚里士多德看来 正义者也是如此 On the Aristotelian picture, the just person, when faced with the possibility of
比如碰到交易中应该老实找零还是使诈的问题 giving back the right amount of change or the wrong amount of change in the transaction,
他不会想 "如果我少找一些零钱的话可能会被逮着" doesn't think to himself, hm, I wonder if whether I ripped off my partner I would get caught.
"我想我不能这样 该找多少我就应该找多少" Hm, I guess I wouldn't. I suppose I'll do the right thing.
在亚里士多德看来 具有美德的人 The virtuous person on the Aristotelian picture
想都不会想替代行为 doesn't even contemplate the alternative activity.
因此 也无需克服替代选项的诱惑 And consequently, feels no need to overcome the alternative temptation.
无需抵抗将你拉往另一个方向的力量 There's not a feeling of resisting a pull in the other direction.
事物的呈现方式在你看来就只能那样做 There's a feeling that the world presents itself to you with what is to be done,
你只不过是照着这样做了 and that you go on to do that.
就像你去朋友家赴宴 Just as when you go over to your friend's for dinner,
你不会想 "银烛台真是太漂亮了" there is I take it, no thought on your part what beautiful silver candlesticks:
"我应该将它们带回家 还是留在这里" should I bring them home with me or should I leave them here?
亚里士多德所认为的具有美德者在面对 So too for the Aristotelian virtuous one is that feeling
我们平常认为是道德困境的情况时也会如此 with respect to anything that we might think of as a moral dilemma.
亚里士多德还讲了其它内容 Now Aristotle also has quite a bit to say
如果这些感觉不一致 将人拉往不同方向时会如何 about what it's like to be in a state where these feelings come apart,
如果这些感觉不一致 将人拉往不同方向时会如何 where they pull in different directions.
下周二阅读任务中的亚里士多德作品选段 And the selections that we're going to read from Aristotle for next Tuesday
会讨论这个问题 discuss exactly that question.
必须迫使自己按照美德行事的人会怎样 What is it like to be somebody who has to force themselves to be virtuous?
本能朝其它方向拉着这些人 Whose instincts run the other direction?
不过这里 他需要提出这个问题 But he's in a position and need to ask that question
因为他已经在卷二中讨论到 exactly because he'd already told us in Book two
处于和谐 美德状态是怎样的 what it is like to be in this harmonious, virtuous state.
而朱莉娅•安纳斯认为 我们能够通过 Now Julia Annas' suggestion is that we can give articulation
当代科学理论阐释这一观点 to this idea in a contemporary scientific paradigm by drawing
特别是积极心理学中的心流概念 on a particular idea from positive psychology, this idea of flow.
匈牙利出身的心理学家米哈里•契克森米哈赖 So Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, a Hungarian-born psychologist
在最近大概30年间 同某些领域成就卓越的人对话 has for the last 30 years or so talked to people who excel in some domain or other
问他们 做自己擅长且引人入胜的事情时 感觉怎样 and asked them what it feels like when they are doing the activity which
问他们 做自己擅长且引人入胜的事情时 感觉怎样 they do so well in a way that is completely absorbing and engaging.
他同作曲家 攀岩运动员 So he talks to composers and he talks to rock climbers and
救火队员 音乐家进行对话 he talks to firefighters and he talks to musicians and he
问他们在特定状态下感觉如何 asks them what it feels like to be in a state:
比如运动状态 音乐状态 创造性状态 an athletic state, a musical state, a creative state,
专心于有效子女养育的状态 a state of absorption in effective parenting,
这是一些他们做得很好且很享受的事情 whatever it is that you do and you do well and you enjoy.
在这些状态中 感觉如何 What does it feel like to be in that state?
如果你们看过他的TED演讲应该知道 他说 And what he says--as you should know if you had the chance to watch his TED talk--
当我们的注意力特意专注于我们正在做的事情时 is that it is when our attention is deliberately focused on what we are doing
行为才最被体验为无需努力的 that the action is most experienced as effortless.
在完全投入的状态下 In a state of complete absorption,
我们关注于体验的细微差别 we're attentive to the subtle nuances of the experience.
比如你在打篮球 对于篮筐 球 你的手 You're playing basketball and the location of the hoop and the ball and your hand
其他球员的位置 你只有一个单独的理解 and the other players is just there for you as a single apprehension.
比如你全身心投入到象棋比赛中 You're engaged in an absorbing chess game and
你对棋盘上棋子的位置有一种感觉 you have a feel for the location of the pieces on the board.
比如你全身心投入到同所爱之人的谈话 You're engaged in a conversation with someone you love or someone you care for
交流中所有的差异和细节在你看来 都很明显 and all of the nuances and all of the subtleties of that interaction are apparent to you.
安纳斯注意到的是 Now what Annas notices is
心流体验有两种特定性质 that there are two particular features of flow experience
对古老的灵魂和谐美德思想具有中心作用 that are actually central to the ancient harmony-of-the-soul notion of virtue.
第一点是 心流活动中 你的行为完全投入 And the first is that flow activity, activity in which you are fully absorbed
这被她称为"自成目的"体验 is experienced as what she calls autotelic.
契克森米哈赖也使用了这个术语 She's actually there making use of terminology that Csikszentmihalyi himself uses.
auto表示"自" telic表示"目的" Auto meaning self, telic meaning end.
合起来autotelic表示以自身为目的 Something that is autotelic is an end in itself.
这不是为了实现其它目的的方式 而是"自成目的"的 It's not a means to an end. It's something that has--
这让我想起了柏拉图《理想国》中的内容 wow, I'm remembering something from Plato's Republic, from
还记得我们第一次阅读的开头几页吗 those opening pages from our very first reading assignment.
这是某种我们感觉具有内在价值的事物 It's something that we experience as having intrinsic value.
做这些事的时候 It's something that when we do it,
我们没有将其作为实现其它目的的手段 we're not thinking of it merely as a means to some other end.
而是将其作为本身具有乐趣的事物 We're thinking of it as something that is enjoyable for its own sake.
如果画家在作画时想 A painter who's painting paintings thinking: "How much
"这幅画放到市场上能卖多少钱" am I going to be able to sell this for on the market?"
那么他将无法完全投入到作画本身的体验中 is not at the time of painting absorbed in painting for its own sake.
如果球员在打球的时候 An athlete who thinks about their performance only in
仅仅考虑为自己或球队得多少分 terms of how many points it will get for them or their team
那么他将无法完全投入到比赛体验中 won't become fully absorbed in the activity.
事实上 即便是只具有工具价值的事物 It turns out that even for things of instrumental value,
要想有效做好并成就卓越 最好的办法 the most effective way to do with them with excellence is
莫过于完全融入其中 让自己感受到内在价值 to become so absorbed in them that they feel to us to be of intrinsic worth.
这为柏拉图《理想国》卷二开头数页中的三分法提供了新的见解 And this give us, I think, a new insight on that three-way
这为柏拉图《理想国》卷二开头数页中的三分法提供了新的见解 divide that we had in the opening pages of Book Two of Plato's Republic
柏拉图认为事物分为只有工具价值 when we were told that there are things that are instrumentally valuable,
只有内在价值 及两者都有三种 things that are intrinsically valuable and things that are both.
这里我们得到了一种新的理解方式 It gives us a way of understanding how even for
哪怕只有工具价值的事物 things that are merely instrumentally valuable, we
我们也能全身心投入进去 can get caught up in our engagement with them
让我们自己感受到其中的内在价值 in such a way that they feel to us to have intrinsic worth.
显然 这既是好的 也是坏的 And this is of course, both a virtue and a vice.
只具有工具价值的最著名物品莫过于钱了 The most famous commodity with merely instrumental value is of course, money.
我有必要说明 你们口袋里的钞票 The bills in your pocket, I hasten to tell you,
只不过是一张值不到一分钱的纸 are not worth as pieces of paper much more than a fraction of a penny.
但钞票在现行经济交易体系中具有工具价值 But they have instrumental value within a system of economic give and take.
但即便是在经济交易体系中 But even within that system of economic give and take, they
钱也只具有工具价值 因为钱本身并没有用 are only of instrumental value because money for its own sake isn't useful.
钱的有用 Money is useful because
仅仅体现在用它能买到其它本身有用的东西 it allows us to purchase other things that are useful for their own sake--
比如漂亮的汽车 美味的食物 beautiful cars, beautiful foods,
同朋友和家人共度的时光 time to spend with our friends and family,
到世界各地旅游的机会 opportunities to visit parts of the world.
这些都能用钱买到 All of those are things that we can buy with money.
但钱本身只具有工具价值 But money in itself is of only instrumental utility.
不过 人类的心理功能 Nonetheless, exactly the human psychological function that
既能够让人将篮球赛中的投篮 enables us to treat something like making a shot in a basketball game,
这种只具有工具价值的事物 which is of course only of instrumental value,
看得具有内在价值 让我们融入到体验中 as if it were of intrinsic value--that allows us to get caught up in experience,
让我们具有这种心流体验 that allows us to have this experience of flow,
也能够让我们认为 can be redeployed so that we come to think
钱本身似乎具有内在价值 that whoever dies with the largest number in their bank account
钱本身似乎具有内在价值 has somehow won a game whose point values weren't arbitrary.
同很多情况一样 So there is--as is very often the case--
人类的这种心理也存在利弊 both an upside and a downside to this fact about human psychology: the fact
即本没有内在价值的事物 能被我们感觉到似乎具有内在价值 that we are capable of experiencing things that might not have intrinsic value as if they did.
实际上 照这种方式体验事物 And in fact, experiencing things in that way is one of
是我们所能做的最投入的事情之一 the most powerfully engaging things that we can do.
当我们所有精力都被投入到某行为时 Exactly because when all of our energies are directed towards the activity,
我们会有些忘我 we lose ourselves in it.
这其中有一种感觉 契克森米哈赖 There is a feeling--and Csikszentmihalyi describes this
在TED演讲的最后五分钟进行了精彩评述 beautifully in the last five minutes of the TED talk that I sent you to.
这里存在一种完全着迷 一种忘我的感觉 There is this feeling of complete absorption, a feeling of unselfconsciousness,
一种自己和世界之间的界限就快崩解的感觉 a feeling of a breakdown between the boundaries of the self and the boundaries of the world.
你成为心流体验中的一部分 You become part of the scene with respect to which you're experiencing the flow.
然后 自我意识回归后 心流会被打断 And indeed, the moment you let self-consciousness reemerge, the flow gets disrupted.
你们如果打过体育比赛 演奏过乐器 表演过戏剧 Any of you who has never played a sport or a musical instrument or been in a play
或者讲过课 or given a lecture
会知道体验的突然中断具有多大的破坏效果 knows the danger of stepping out of the scene and listening to yourself doing it,
会知道体验的突然中断具有多大的破坏效果 how disruptive that can be of the experience.
安纳斯认为 亚里士多德关于美德的思想 So Annas' suggestion is that Aristotle's idea of virtue is
其实也就是美德和具有美德的行为应该感觉像心流一样 the idea that virtue and the activity of virtue should feel flow-like.
感觉引人入胜 It should feel absorbing.
感觉不需要思考 It should feel non-reflective.
感觉当你处在勇敢或正义或有节制 It should feel that when you are in the act of being brave or just
或宽宏大量或慷慨高尚等亚里士多德认为具有美德的行为时 or temperate or magnanimous or magnificent or any of the other Aristotelian virtues,
你自己处在一种没有选择余地的状态之中 that what you experience at that moment
你自己处在一种没有选择余地的状态之中 is a feeling that you're doing something about which there was no choice.
这就是世界的运作方式 This is just the way the world is--
同时 你还会感觉其具有内在价值 with respect to which you feel there to be intrinsic value.
感觉完全融入其中 达到忘我 And where you feel fully absorbed and unselfconscious.
契克森米哈赖还有更系统性的研究 And Csikszentmihalyi goes on in his more systematic work
解释说这些产生的原因在于 to explain that the reason that this occurs is because there is
你的技巧水平同实际行为的挑战性之间具有重要匹配关系 profound match between your skill level and the challenge that the activity brings with it.
碰到一个任务时 如果任务挑战性不大 When we are presented with a task, which is not challenging for us
同时我们技巧水平也很低 and with respect to which we have low skill,
我们将会体验契克森米哈赖所说的"冷漠" we experience what Csikszentmihalyi calls apathy.
某事物对我不难 但我也不擅长 So if there's something that's not very hard for me, but I'm not very good at it,
我对同它打交道的动机就很弱 there's going to be little motivation to respond to that with engagement.
如果我的技巧水平低 而任务更难一些 If my skill level is low and the task is a little bit harder,
我会对自己的无能感到"担忧" I might feel worried in the face of my inability to do it.
如果我的技巧水平低 而挑战难度很高 我会感到"焦虑" And if my skill level is low and the challenge level is high, I might even feel anxiety.
如果我的技巧水平适中 而任务对我没有挑战性 Moving over, if my skill level is moderate and the activity is of low challenge to me,
我的体验将是"乏味" I'll experience a feeling of boredom.
我不想和它打交道 I won't find myself engaged by it.
这种情况让人觉得无聊 I'll find the situation to be tedious.
如果我的技术水平适中 而任务很具挑战性 If my skill level is medium and the activity is of high challenge,
我会感觉"激昂" I might feel aroused.
我会觉得很有兴致 具有这样做的积极性 I might feel intrigued by it. I might feel some motivation to act in that way.
让我们感觉最激动人心的情况 But the cases where we feel the most excitement in the world
是我们作为行为主体 具有应对策略从而有效行为的情况 are the cases where we have the coping strategies that enable us to act effectively as agents.
之前我们阅读过的乔纳森•海特的作品 You'll recall that when we read the material from Jonathan Haidt
之前我们阅读过的乔纳森•海特的作品 for last class and the class before,
他描述了一个在养老院进行的实验 he described an experiment that was done on the floor of a nursing home
有些老人被给予照看盆栽的责任 where the patients were either given the responsibility for caring for the plants on the floor
而有些老人则没有这种责任 or somebody else cared for the plants on the floor.
参与到富有成效的活动中的老人 幸福程度更高 And the happiness level of those who were engaged in productive activity was much higher.
技巧性处理 发挥作为行为主体的能力 Skillful coping, being able to be a force of agency in the world
对人类而言 是幸福的主要来源之一 is for human beings one of the primary sources of happiness.
回想一下几堂课前我们讨论过的 And if we think back to what we talked about a few classes ago
幼年安全依附的重要性问题 on the importance of early childhood secure attachment,
安全依附中包含一种作为行为主体的感觉 one way of understanding what secure attachment includes is a feeling of agency in the world.
你哭时 如果能让看护人来满足你的需求 If when you cry it causes your caregiver to come to you and satisfy your needs,
你会觉得自己是有效的主体 you come to feel yourself to be effective as an agent.
这里 如果我们技巧水平高 而挑战性弱 And so when our skill level is high, even if the challenge level is low,
我们会感觉到一定的"放松" we'll feel performing the activity a certain kind of relaxation.
在手机上玩过泡泡游戏并擅长的人 Those of you who play bubble pop games on your telephone and are good at them
所体验的就是这个 are presumably experiencing that.
很多时候 当我们有高技巧 但任务挑战性弱时 Many times we have high skill level with a low challenge activity
我们就会感觉到放松 and it enables us to feel that we're relaxing.
当我们具有高技巧水平 但挑战性适中时 When we have high skill level and a challenge that's medium for us,
我们能感觉到"控制"的欣喜 we get this thrill of control.
这里你试图做什么事情 The idea that here's something you're trying to do.
你很擅长这件事 这能让你感觉到自己很有效 You have pretty good mastery of it and it gives you this feeling of efficacy.
最后 图表中还有一块没有揭示 And finally, we have one cell unexposed in this matrix.
也就是同时有高技巧水平和高挑战性时的情况 And that's the cell that asks us what it's like
也就是同时有高技巧水平和高挑战性时的情况 when we have both high skill level and a challenging activity.
毫无意外 这就是"心流"所在之处 And it won't surprise you to learn that that is where flow falls.
安纳斯使用契克森米哈赖的理论解读了亚里士多德的理论 So Annas' suggestion, drawing on Csikszentmihalyi as a way of understanding Aristotle,
认为从内部来看 具有美德其实也就是 is that what it is like to be a virtuous being from the inside
完全投入到某种极具挑战的行为中 is to be fully absorbed in an activity that is in some sense enormously challenging.
这包含审视世界 认识到何种情况是道德上要求的 It involves scanning the world in such a way that you
这包含审视世界 认识到何种情况是道德上要求的 recognize what situations are morally demanding
然后有技巧地 自然地 无需努力地 高兴地处于和谐状态 and acting skillfully, naturally, effortlessly, happily in a state of harmony,
同世界对你的要求完全一致 in a way that conforms with what the world demands of you.
这样做以后 人就能完全融入到行为中 And in so doing one is fully absorbed in an activity
同时感觉到这种行为具有内在价值 which feels to one to be of intrinsic worth.
此时 自我作为独特主体的感觉由于融入而消失 And where the feeling of one's self as a distinct agent disappears because of the absorption.
这就是我们这次所读的第一篇文章 So that's the first of the articles that we read for today.
文章将亚里士多德的观点 One which says, here's a demand which Aristotle makes,
同当代社会心理学理论联系了起来 here's a way of understanding that demand in the vocabulary
同当代社会心理学理论联系了起来 of a contemporary work of social psychology.
我们这次读的第二段内容则完全相反 The second piece that we read for today does exactly the opposite.
约翰•多里斯同其它一些哲学家 John Doris, following a number of other philosophers
包括吉尔伯特•哈曼等 including Gilbert Harman and several others
认为当代社会心理学所证明的是 suggests that contemporary social psychology shows that
行为的主要决定因素是环境而非品格 it's circumstance rather than character that's the primary determinant of action.
多里斯所认为的社会心理学认为 What determines how we act in a situation says Doris, says social psychology--
决定我们在某处境下会如何行为的 that is, Doris says social psychology says--
决定我们在某处境下会如何行为的 when we are in a situation what determines our action
并不是某种品格的稳定性 is not something stable about our character,
并不是亚里士多德条件三说的始终如一的状态 not Aristotle's condition three that it be a state that persists over time,
而是处境的偶然性质 but rather incidental features of the situation.
因此 亚里士多德道德心理学 特别是条件三 And as a result Aristotelian moral psychology in particular in its third condition
犯了社会心理学所说的基本归因错误 demands that we commit what social psychologists call the fundamental attribution error.
为了解释基本归因错误 In order to explain the fundamental attribution error,
让我展示一下能够作为范例的研究 let me present you with the study that serves as the paradigm instance
该研究显示 决定行为的是环境而非品格 showing the ways in which circumstance and not character appear to determine behavior.
我展示这项研究既因为它是这类文献中极重要的 And I present this study to you both because it's central to this literature,
也因为课上我们读到过其中一个作者 巴特森的作品 and because our very class we read a piece by one of its authors, Batson.
而且讲到惩罚部分时 And when we get to the punishment section,
我们还将读到另一个作者 约翰•达利的作品 we'll be reading a piece by its other author, John Darley.
在基督教传统中长大的人 应该知道好撒玛利亚人的比喻 So the Good Samaritan parable as those of you raised in Christian religious traditions
这是耶稣在《路加福音》中讲的一个故事 know, is a story that Jesus tells in the book of Luke
当时他被问及柏拉图和亚里士多德所面对的类似问题 when he is asked basically the question which
当时他被问及柏拉图和亚里士多德所面对的类似问题 we've asked Plato and Aristotle to answer for us:
人怎样才算按照道德要求的方式行为 How is it that I can behave in the way that morality demands?
耶稣讲了这样一个故事 And the story that Jesus tells runs as follows.
"一个人从耶路撒冷前往杰里科" "A certain man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho and
"强盗打劫他 脱光了他的衣服 并将他打得半死" he fell among robbers who both stripped him and beat him and departed leaving him half dead.
"一个祭司碰巧路过" By chance a certain priest was going down that way.
"看到他后 祭司绕道而行" When he saw him, he passed by on the other side.
"类似地" In the same way,
"一个利未人路过时也装作没看见" a Levite also when he came to the place saw him and passed by the other side.
"但有一个撒玛利亚人路过时 被同情心所动" But a certain Samaritan as he traveled came where he was when he saw him,
"但有一个撒玛利亚人路过时 被同情心所动" he was moved with compassion.
"来到他跟前 帮他包扎伤口 涂上油和葡萄酒" Came to him, bound up his wounds, pouring on oil and wine."
这些显然是疗伤用的 That's apparently a nice thing to do to wounds.
"用自己的动物将他送到旅店 并照顾他" "Set him on his own animal, brought him to an inn, took care of him."
而且临走时还给旅店老板钱 让老板照顾他 And the story continues. He gives the innkeeper money to take care of the man.
耶稣向提问的人说 "你也应该这样做" And Jesus says to the person who asked for a story, "this too should you do."
想一想好撒玛利亚人的故事 So the story of the Good Samaritan is a story that, if you are thinking about it,
你应该意识到帮助需要帮助的陌生人这种美德 should lead you presumably to recognize the virtue of helping the stranger in need.
这应该能让你意识到 It should make it particularly salient to you
世界对你的道德要求之中包括 that among the moral demands that the world places on you
如果你碰到某人负伤躺在路边 is that if somebody is lying injured along the wayside,
如果你碰到某人负伤躺在路边 and you are in a position to help them,
那么要满足道德的要求 then it would be in keeping with the demands of morality
你应该停下来为他擦油和葡萄酒 for you to stop and lean down and pour oil and wine onto his wounds--
或者当代能用于治疗的东西 or whatever the contemporary analog of that is.
达利和巴特森的研究是这样的 So the study that Darley and Batson did ran as follows.
他们在普林斯顿选了一些神学院学生 They took a bunch of divinity school students at Princeton--young seminarians.
这是学生穿着神学院服装的样子 You can see them there in their young seminarian outfits.
研究要求一些神学院学生准备一场好撒玛利亚人的布道演说 And it asked some of them to prepare a sermon on the parable of the Good Samaritan.
这些都是神学院学生 So these are divinity school students,
其目标应该是培养自己的道德品格 presumably people who are committed to developing moral character in themselves.
而且他们所准备的演说 And what they've been asked to do is to prepare a sermon on
同时也显得非常非常明白了 something that makes very, very salient to them that if
也就是 碰到需要帮助的人时 you stumble upon somebody who is in need of your help,
你需要停下来施以援手 you should stop and help them.
然后巴特森和达利告诉一些学生 And then what Batson and Darley did is they told some of these people that they were in
需要赶紧前往校园另一端进行演说 a great rush to get to the other side of campus where they needed to deliver their lecture.
有些人则没被告诉这些 And some of them they didn't tell this to.
有些神学院学生被告知讲好撒玛利亚人的故事 And some of the seminarians had been told to do the Good Samaritan story
有些学生则被告知讲其它故事 and some of the seminarians had been told to prepare another story.
如果决定行为的确实是品格 Now you might think if the hypothesis that what determines behavior is character were true
那么准备讲撒玛利亚人的神学院学生 that those seminarians who had prepared a lecture on the Good Samaritan
就很可能会意识到道德需要 would be particularly likely to recognize the moral needs
以帮助负伤的路人 attaching to stumbling upon somebody who was injured.
而他们自己的演说是否迟到 And that the question of whether they were late or early to give their lecture
不会影响到这个 would have no bearing.
达利和巴特森决定测试这个 Darley and Batson decided to test this.
他们让神学院学生走向讲堂 What they did is they had the seminarians walk over towards the lecture hall.
途中有某人躺在路上需要他们的帮助 And on their way there was somebody lying on the sidewalk in need of their help.
结果 神学院学生是否停下来帮助路边之人 Now, what was predictive of whether the seminarians
结果 神学院学生是否停下来帮助路边之人 stopped to help this man on the wayside
同是否要讲好撒玛利亚人的故事无关 was not whether they had prepared a story about the Good Samaritan.
而与是否急着去演说有关 It was whether they were in a rush to get to their lecture.
急着去演说的人不仅不帮助路边的人 And those of them who were, very often not only didn't help the man,
甚至跨过他的身体匆匆赶往讲堂 they stepped over his body and rushed over to the theater.
其实我们都经历过 Now all of us have experienced this.
我急着去接孩子时 If I'm in a rush to pick up my kids
如果碰到救护车开过来 我需要靠边 and I have to pull over because there's an ambulance coming the other way,
这让我感觉很恼人 I feel incredible annoyance.
为什么 Why?
因为我在想"救护车中的人就该死" Because I think, "oh that person in the ambulance, they deserve to die
"因为影响我接小孩"吗 because I've got to pick up my kids?"
不是 这是因为我的注意力集中在外部目标上 No, it's because when our attention is directed towards an external goal,
此时人很难注意到处境的道德性质 it is very hard for us to be attentive to the moral features of a situation.
这种情况我们一次又一次看到 And it turns out, over and over and over again
我们考虑什么导致人按特定方式行事时 that when we're trying to decide what led somebody to act in a particular way,
常常倾向于过分强调品格特性 we have a tendency to over-credit features on their character--dispositional features--
而过低强调情景和环境性质 and under-credit situational features--features of the circumstance.
比如我们通常会认为 So we think be for example, that whether or not--
这是多里斯论文中的开篇案例 this is the opening case in Doris' paper--
当别人的文件掉落时 你是否乐于帮他捡起来 whether or not you're likely to help somebody pick up their papers when they drop them
取决于你的品格特性 你是不是个乐于助人的人 depends upon a feature of your character. Are you a helpful person or an unhelpful person?
但根据研究 人们愿意帮助别人 But it looks like you can manipulate whether people are going to be willing to help
可能仅仅是因为在电话亭中捡到一枚一角硬币 simply by letting them find a dime in a phone booth.
不知道电话亭是什么的 (If you don't know what a phone booth is, there's a
可以看黑客帝国 里面就有电话亭 movie called The Matrix and they have phone booths in it.)
是否捡到硬币 决定了他们是否帮助别人 Whether or not they find a dime in the phone booth is what determines whether they help.
在好撒玛利亚人研究中 关键不在于人们是否乐于助人 In the Good Samaritan study, it's not whether they're thinking about being helpful--
而在于人们是否匆忙 it's whether they're in a rush.
米尔格拉姆实验中 In the Milgram experiments,
关键不在于通常人们会怎么行为 it's not about whether in general they behave one way or the other--
而在于特定环境下 人们会被迫如何行为 it's whether they find themselves in a circumstance where a demand is made of them.
在越南"道德运气"案例中 In the Vietnam "moral luck" cases,
不是那些去越南的年轻人的品格导致他们的行为方式 it's not that these young men who went to Vietnam and found themselves in a
不是那些去越南的年轻人的品格导致他们的行为方式 circumstance had a character that would lead them to act in that way says this theory--
而是特定环境使然 it's that they found themselves in this circumstance.
所以 约翰•多里斯认为 亚里士多德的理论不可能正确 So says John Doris, the Aristotelian theory can't be right.
它对人类心理学的前提假设是错误的 It presupposes a faulty picture of human psychology.
已经11:20了 下一讲开始时 It's 11:20 now. At the beginning of next lecture, I'll pick up again
我会讲到社会心理学的两个结果 with two results from social psychology that
在特定方面 质疑多里斯对亚里士多德的异议 challenge, in certain ways, the claim that Doris is making against Aristotle,
然后 我们将继续讨论亚里士多德观点的另一面 and then we'll continue with our discussion of Aristotle's counter side to this--
在意志薄弱的情况下我们该怎么做 what we do in cases of weakness of the will
如果不满足亚里士多德四大条件时 我们有什么策略可供选择 and what strategies are available to us if we don't satisfy Aristotle's four conditions.