今天不是什么好日子 我们就讲戴克里先吧 FREEDMAN: But the advantage of talking to you, even on an inconvenient day, is Diocletian.
历史学中我们不大喜欢使用"了不起"这样的词汇 We don't use terms in the professional world of history like awesome very much.
不过戴克里先显然配得上这个词 But the guy certainly deserves that.
他拯救了罗马帝国 我将讲到他拯救了些什么 He rescued the Roman Empire, and we'll begin by saying what he rescued it from.
先讲一下课程准备 讨论课本周开始 As a preliminary, the sections are meeting this week.
如果你在候选名单 选就是了 If you're wait-listed for a section, just go to it.
不管多少人选修这门课 讨论课数量都是够的 We will have enough sections for however many people take this course, right?
目前是四个 So there are currently four.
从上周开始 额外加的在 The additional ones that were added since last week are
周三2点半和周四7点 Wednesday at 2:30 and Thursday at 7:00.
如果你在候选名单 选就是了 And again, if you're wait-listed, just go.
我们会有办法的 We'll figure this out.
每个人都有讨论课可上 There will be enough sections for everybody.
上次课我讲到了三世纪危机 So I referred last time to the third century crisis.
这次危机直到戴克里先即位 A crisis of the Roman Empire that preceded the accession of Diocletian,
从235到284年 from 235 to 284.
我提到了帝国几大相互关联的弱点 And we mentioned several interrelated weaknesses of the
这些弱点长期积累造成此次危机 Empire that might be seen as long-term causes of this crisis.
帝国的版图 The size of the Empire.
过于巨大的版图 It's sheer, massive size.
继承权的问题 The problem of succession.
帝王之间如何传位的问题从未明确过 That is, it was never quite clear, and we'll talk about this in more detail,
这我还会详细讲到 how one emperor succeeded another.
城市农村间的不平衡 The urban-rural imbalance.
罗马帝国建立在城市基础上 This was an empire built on cities.
某种程度上… 虽然具体到哪种程度 And to some extent, although heavily debated among
历史学界还有争议 不过某种程度上 historians to what extent, but to some extent, the cities may
城市耗尽了农村地区的能量和生产力 be said to have drained off the energy, or been parasites
犹如寄生虫 to the productivity of the countryside.
这个帝国 从一种观点来看 It was an empire that was, according to one point of
太过世界主义了 view, more cosmopolitan than it had been,
从另一种观点来看 太多"野蛮人"了 according to another point of view, more barbarian.
换言之 这是罗马帝国 但罗马人口却无法占据主导 In other words, this was an empire whose Roman population was less dominant,
这部分是因为罗马人在委派其它民族方面的成功 partly through its own success in co-opting other peoples.
罗马委派的很多民族 Some of the peoples that it co-opted we're not actually
原本都不是帝国的居民 originally inhabitants of the Empire.
特别是在军队中 Particularly, this is visible in the armies, which tended to
很多是由"蛮族部落"组成 be staffed by so-called barbarian tribes.
"蛮族"是罗马人对他们的蔑称 So called by the Romans, who referred to them as barbarians.
另一个问题是东西方不平衡 Another problem is the East-West imbalance, where the
东方在经济和人口上都比西方做得好 East tends to do better economically and demographically than the West,
东方在经济和人口上都比西方做得好 demographically meaning population.
我们这个世界最大的问题之一就是人口过多 We live in a world where one of the great threats is over-population.
虽然并非不言自明 不过在当时 It is therefore not self-evident, although true,
以及人类历史的很长时间内 that for most of the time, historically,
人口增长都是需要达到的目标 most places have trouble reproducing their population.
罗马帝国当时就处在大的人口衰落期 And indeed, we are starting to enter into a period of great demographic decline.
婴儿死亡率高 寿命期望值低 The infant mortality, the low life expectancy,
女性难产死亡 疾病流行 the death of women in childbirth, the prevalence of disease, and to
还有战场上的死亡 some extent, military threats of invasion, or if not
这些都让维持人口数量成为一大问题 threats, the reality, made it hard for one generation to produce children to replace itself.
直到现代的黎明之前 情况都是如此 And this is true up until the dawn of modernity.
这些就是罗马帝国的基本问题 So these are fundamental problems of the Roman Empire.
那么问题是 这些问题为何都在三世纪暴发 The real question is why do they explode in the third century?
上周我应该讲过 任何帝国都有这个问题 And this is a question, as I think I said last week, with any great empire.
复杂体系中肯定会有很多瑕疵 It's easy to point to the flaws in a complicated system.
比如国家版图 Often size is one of them.
比如官僚体制 Often bureaucracy.
比如军队花销超支 Often overspending on the military.
不过有些帝国能持续成功很久 But some of these go on for a very long time, more or less
虽然有这样那样的瑕疵 success of successfully, despite the flaws.
我说过 罗马帝国的延续算很长了 And the Roman Empire went on longer than most, as we said.
三世纪危机的直接原因是侵略和继承权问题 The immediate problems that explode in the third century are invasions and succession.
侵略者首先是波斯 Invasions by, first of all, Persia.
波斯是罗马帝国的老对手 Persia is the old enemy of the Roman Empire.
其实 早在罗马之前的希腊城邦时期 Indeed, as many of you know, the old enemy of the Greek
其实 早在罗马之前的希腊城邦时期 city-states that precede the Roman Empire as far back as
根据西方史学界首位历史学家 希罗多德 the first historian of the Western tradition, Herodotus--
如果你们感兴趣 可以参考第一周的指导研究 first week of directed studies, for those of you who are nostalgic for that experience--
"波斯是敌人" 我们从没学过波斯 Persia is the enemy. Now we never study Persia.
我们永远只把它当作舞台背景 It's kind of like offstage all the time.
学习波斯是近东语言和文化系的特权 And that's the great benefit of the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures.
在那里 你们可以站在波斯的立场学习波斯 If you want to learn about Persia really from within,
而不是像我们 总是说 "天啊 波斯人" instead of oh, my god, the Persians.
公元前470年 我们也是说 "天啊 波斯人" And it's oh, my god, the Persians in [470] BC,
还好 这将到头了 and it's going to come to an end.
到七世纪波斯就将成为历史 It is going to come to an end in the seventh century.
这是因为伊斯兰教 提前告诉你们 But that's because of Islam, just to anticipate.
到三世纪 波斯开始复苏 But in the third century, Persia becomes resurgent.
波斯在东方同罗马帝国邻近 但之前比较消极 Having been rather passive, it has this frontier with the Roman Empire in the East.
还有一些缓冲地带 美索不达米亚(现伊拉克) 亚美尼亚 More or less, buffer states are Mesopotamia, present-day Iraq, and Armenia.
这并不完全是现在的亚美尼亚 It's not exactly the same as the present-day state of Armenia,
更多是现土耳其东部 but more like eastern Turkey.
此时控制波斯 而且更具侵略性的王朝 The dynasty that controls Persia, and that is more aggressive than its predecessor
是萨珊王朝 阅读材料中有 are the Sassanids, and this appears in your reading.
波斯的萨珊王朝比之前更有侵略性和冒险精神 The Sassanid Dynasty, the rulers of Persia, just more aggressive and more adventurous.
从224年开始 他们开始在边境进行试探 Beginning in 224, they start to probe that frontier along
最终越过亚美尼亚和美索不达米亚地区 the Armenian and Mesopotamian border, and eventually cross
开始对罗马帝国东部行省造成严重破坏 it and start to wreak havoc in some of the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire.
这种情况的顶峰出现在260年 波斯俘虏瓦勒良皇帝 The climax of this is the Emperor Valerian was captured by the Persians in 260.
瓦勒良在该混沌时期 算在位长的皇帝 253-260年 Valerian actually one of the longer-reigning Emperor's of this chaotic period, 253 to 260.
波斯人将他关押 They kept him for a little while.
他身负镣铐示众 最后可能被剥皮而死 Displayed him in chains, maybe flayed him.
总之 他在被俘中死去 Anyway, he died in captivity.
波斯人没让他好受 They did a kind of a job on him.
也有可能是死后才剥皮的 免得太恐怖 I think maybe he was flayed after he died, just not to be too gruesome,
我想波斯人展示过他的皮 but I think they displayed the skin.
我说过 我在波斯方面并非专家 As I said, I'm not a Persian specialist.
侵略的另一部分来自多瑙河莱茵河边境 But the second invasion is across the Danube-Rhine frontier.
多瑙河和莱茵河被罗马人 The Danube and the Rhine form what the Romans thought of as
认为是面对蛮族的天然边界 a natural frontier with the barbarian states.
这不代表罗马人不越过界限 That didn't mean that they didn't cross them.
其实 罗马人的很多堡垒和军事设施 In fact, many of their great fortresses and establishments
都位于莱茵河东岸 were on the eastern side of the Rhine.
这样做是为了防止蛮族越过莱茵河 But they considered those as bulwarks against a dramatic invasion across the Rhine.
莱茵河同多瑙河几乎相汇 The Rhine and the Danube almost meet--
莱茵河从现在的荷兰往下到瑞士 the Rhine going from modern Netherlands down to Switzerland,
而多瑙河从德国 and the Danube going also from Germany
流经奥地利 匈牙利 入黑海 eventually Austria, Hungary, into the Black Sea.
我们会看到 九世纪早期 查理曼大帝 As we'll see, Charlemagne, in the early ninth century, tried
试图在两者之间建立运河 to build a canal between the two of them.
这个项目非常巨大 但最后完全失败掉了 And there are actually traces of this immense and completely unsuccessful project.
现在两者中间有一条运河了 And there now is a canal between them.
这基本就是罗马帝国的边界线了 So this is sort of the frontier of the Roman Empire,
这条线之外就很少有酿酒葡萄 and this is the line above which wine grapes [become scarce],
也没有橄榄油 no olive oil is pressed.
这是需要护卫的国土 之外没有征服价值 And it's got to be protected, but not worth conquering.
所以说 三世纪时莱茵河多瑙河边境也有压力 So we have pressure on the Rhine-Danube frontiers in the third century,
另一个皇帝 德西乌斯 251年同哥特人战斗时阵亡 and another Emperor, Decius, died fighting the Goths in 251, Decius.
而瓦勒良死于260年 And Valerian dies in 260.
皇帝在这里出战是作为领袖 So the Emperors are certainly out there as leaders, but that
也同他们和军队的关系有关 actually has to do with the fact that they're military guys.
这也是问题的一部分 And that is part of the problem.
除了入侵以外 另一大问题是继承权 The major problem besides the invasions was succession.
一个人是皇帝 还是冒牌货 取决于怎么算 It depends on how you count--
一个人是皇帝 还是冒牌货 取决于怎么算 is someone a real Emperor, or is he merely a pretender?--
235到285年间有30多位皇帝 there are at least 30 Emperors between 235 and 285.
很多都只统治了几个月 很多都被杀死 Many of them ruling for months, most of them being killed.
有些被禁卫军杀死 也就是皇帝自己的军队 They're assassinated by the Praetorian Guard, that is, by their own troops.
有些是被外敌杀死 如德西乌斯和瓦勒良 They're killed in battle against foreign enemies, like Decius and Valerian.
有些是在同其他皇位主张者战斗时被杀 They're killed in battle against other people claiming to be Emperors.
不过最普遍的是被自己的军队刺杀 But the most common thing is they're assassinated by their own troops.
罗马皇帝如何传位呢 How had Roman Emperors succeeded each other?
有几种方式 There were several ways.
一种你们可能会想到 王朝式传位 One is what you would expect, and that is dynastic.
不过这在罗马并不多见 But that's not all that common.
王朝式 也就是传给家人 Dynastic, in other words, families rule.
此时 家族被认为是统治家族 And the family is recognized as a ruling family, and
因此父传于子 如果没有儿子 therefore it goes from father to son, or if there's no son,
也可以传给女婿或者侄子 诸如此类 father to person daughter marries, or father to nephew, something like that.
但这在罗马并不常见 But that was not actually so common.
有时 罗马皇帝由前任选择 Sometimes the next Emperor was chosen by his predecessor.
这是公元二世纪的一般情况 所谓的五贤君时期 This is characteristic of the second century AD, the era of the so-called good Emperors.
理论上 这个方式很好 In theory, this is a great system.
这就没有家族偏见 You have no family prejudice.
作为一名贤君 你可以传位给 You simply, as a good Emperor, pick someone who looks to you
你觉得很有贤德的人 like he's going to be a good Emperor.
这是另一种方式 So that is another possibility.
另一种方式 有权势者使用部队来夺取王位 Another possibility is some guy is powerful, and uses his troops to take over.
这就是三世纪的情况 And that's what we see in the third century.
整个帝国穷兵黩武 We see not only the militarization of the Empire,
各军队拥立不同皇帝 相互厮杀 but the interference of the army in raising successors, in raising new Emperors.
军队能够废立皇帝 The army was able to make and unmake Emperors.
就像某些国家不稳定政治局势时的情况一样 Just as in some countries with unstable political structures,
军队能够废立皇帝 the military is able to make and unmake rulers.
三世纪的有趣情况是 很远的军队都能这样 What is interesting about the third century is that they're able to do it far from Rome.
有些军队在北非 Some of these armies are in North Africa.
有些在波斯边境作战 Some of them are on the frontier fighting the Persians.
罗马越来越不像帝国的支配城市了 Rome is becoming less and less relevant as the dominant city of the Empire.
提到这个 是因为到周三我会讲到 And I mentioned that now, because we'll see on Wednesday
这导致了另一个首都的建立 the result of this is will be the establishment of another capital,
东方的第二个首都 君士坦丁堡(现伊斯坦布尔) a second capital in the East, in what would be called Constantinople, modern Istanbul.
罗马首次筑起城墙 Rome is fortified for the first time.
现在城墙还有一些遗迹 There is a wall that you can still see in many parts of
271年由奥勒良皇帝建成 Rome, built by the Emperor Aurelian in 271.
这是很引入注目的事情 因为271年前 And this is a significant thing, because until 271 for
几个世纪罗马都没有城墙 因为它不会受到威胁 centuries, Rome had not been walled, because it was not threatened.
271年的筑城开始暗示出 And fortification in 271 starts to indicate things to
有事情将要发生 come, or at least things that we know are to come.
也就是蛮族入侵 罗马被边缘化也是在此时 Namely, barbarian invasions, just as the marginalization of Rome begins at this time.
三世纪的罗马 可以认为是一些军队将领在统治 Rome in the third century is ruled, if one can call it that, by a succession of generals.
统治者不是上层社会的精英 而是来自各行省的人 Not members of an upper class elite, but men who have come from the provinces.
一些没有受过良好教育的人 Men who are not particularly well-educated, who would have
一些不认识贺拉斯为何人的人 trouble recognizing a tag from Horace,
这里没有可供查阅引述的互联网 there being no internet just to look these quotes up.
这些人轻视罗马的传统精英 They hold the traditional Roman elite in contempt.
而罗马元老院则是这些精英的体现 The Senate of Rome is the embodiment of that elite.
罗马元老院中的人 The Roman Senate is a collection of extremely
都非常富有 出身高贵 wealthy people, from good families, extensive property,
受过良好教育 and very, very fine education.
而三世纪的统治者们却由军队产生 The people leading in the third century now are generals raised by their troops.
军队拥立将领然后再杀死他们的原因在于 One of the reasons that the troops both raised up generals, and then killed them,
军队可以从新皇帝那里获得所谓的"捐赠" was that they tended to get a kind of reward from the new Emperor-- a thing called a donative.
"捐赠"是新皇帝要给到部队的钱 A donative is money that you get when there's a new Emperor.
从皇帝的观点来看 这很糟糕 A bad idea from the point of view of the Emperors, because
因为这导致了双重收费 三重收费 it encourages double-dipping, or triple-dipping.
这个伙计那里拿到了钱 杀了他 换个人再拿钱 OK, now we've gotten our money from this guy, let's kill him and get money from another guy.
有点讽刺 但差不多就是这样的情况 I don't think that's too cynical to say that that is some of what is going on.
三世纪所有的危机中 Now of all the crises of the third century, this is the one
下面一个具有最"可见"的影响 that leaves the most visible impression.
毫无疑问 总换皇帝是看得见的 There's absolutely no doubt that there are all of these different Emperors,
上层政府的不稳定也是看得见的 and that the top of the government is unstable.
但问题是 对普通人的生活影响最大的是什么 The question is how much does that carry over into the lives of ordinary people?
一个有效的文明 它能够存活下来 One measure of the effectiveness of a civilization is that is survives,
而且人民几乎都不会太多地评论政治不稳定性 and even people don't comment very much on political instability.
比如我们现在的情况 In a way, we are testing that now.
对很多人而言 政府如何极化 For many people, the fact that the government is polarized
对日常生活并不重要 这能持续多久呢 doesn't really matter, in terms of their everyday life. How long can that go on?
这部分是因为所有机构都能有效运行 That's partly because all sorts of institutions are functioning perfectly fine.
现在我们在这里集会 Here we are. We are meeting.
不会突然间停止供水给我们 There's no problem of the supply of water suddenly, or
不会减少供应品 也没有大量野蛮人在外面 scarce provisioning, or barbarians massed outside, and
不需要边上课还边做好边防 we have to sort of protect against during our class.
至少现在还没有到那种状况 It hasn't come to that. Yet.
我们看下三世纪普通人的生活 But if you look at the lives of ordinary people in the third century,
他们不会说 "别再换皇帝了 我受不了了" they are not saying not another Emperor, I can't take it anymore.
比如哲学家普罗提诺 当时最伟大的思想家 The philosopher Plotinus, for example, one of the great intellectual figures of this time.
当然 他对事物有非常超脱的思想 Now it's true, he has a very otherworldly way of thinking about things.
他是柏拉图的追随者 He is a follower of Plato, he's the leading so-called
三世纪流行的新柏拉图学派哲学家 neo-Platonist philosopher, flourishes during the third century,
他旅行很多 travels a bit.
但他从来就没提到过 But we never hear of any difficulty, any kind of
不稳定局势对旅行有什么阻碍 problems raised by these unstable conditions.
比起这种不稳定 对一般人影响更多的是通货膨胀 The one that might have affected more people than the instability is inflation.
罗马货币是银和铜 依据这两种金属对黄金的比例 Roman coinage was silver and bronze, and based on ratios of these metals to gold.
最终价值标准还是黄金 The ultimate standard of value was gold,
不过铜和银具有代替黄金的流通属性 but bronze and silver had attributed values in relation to gold.
给军队的"捐助"需要政府开支 The need to reward the army with those donatives, and the
防御外敌也需要大量的政府开支 dislocations of the invasions led to tremendous government expenditures.
而这个社会没有债务融资体系 没有债券 And this was a society that did not have debt financing. There are no bonds.
政府没有发行保证未来收益的债券 There are no ways of the government anticipating future
然后通过债券借钱 revenues and borrowing money against them.
这是中世纪的发明 That is actually an invention of the Middle Ages.
这是罗马人没有的 This is an example of something that the Romans didn't have
中世纪意大利城市最先使用债务融资 that Medieval cities in Italy pioneered, debt financing.
具体是什么没必要深究 I don't have to tell you what that is.
这有很大的好处 And it's a great advantage, up to a point.
因为这能提供"杠杆" 集中力量现在做事 Great advantage, because it gives you leverage, allows you to do things now.
政府无法借钱 那么如何应对这么多开支呢 So how does a government deal with problems like this if it can't borrow money?
当时使用的方法是往钱币中掺杂质 It does what is called debasing the coinage.
掺杂质会降低钱币的质量 To debase, that is degrade, the coinage means that you
铸币时少加入银或铜 just don't put in as much silver or bronze,
就更别谈金了 let alone gold,
并试图让人们相信它具有其价值 and try to get people to accept it for its value anyway.
到1970年代 美国货币是同黄金挂钩的 So up until the 1970s, the American currency was based on
美元被称作银元券 gold, and dollar bills were called silver certificates.
也就是可以用一美元兑换一美元价值的白银 They said that you could hand this bill in for a dollar's worth of silver.
理论上而言 它并非货币 It was, technically speaking, not currency.
而是可用以交易的货币代用券 It was merely a representative of currency, which you could trade in.
再之前 钱币是金属的 And before that, of course, the coins were metal.
美元有银币和纸币 银币给人感觉更真实 Dollars were both silver and paper, with the silver one being, in some sense, the more real.
现代政府出于融资的需要 It is in the nature of modern government financing that, at
跟人们说 "忘了它吧" some point, the government could just say forget about it.
而且就算是1970年代很久以前 And even long before the 1970s,
政府也没有足够的银供大家交易 of course the government didn't have enough silver for everyone to trade
就像诺克斯堡没有足够黄金 them in, just as it doesn't have enough gold in Fort Knox
来兑换全球的货币 to float the entire world's currency.
黄金很多 It has a lot.
这些非常重要 具有实在的价值 And that's important that there be some real kind of
比如金砖 金条 value, or bullion, or bottom line kind of gold bars.
不过金银不够 本身不会导致问题 But the fact that it's not enough is not intrinsically a problem.
而这里 假设政府税收一千单位黄金 But here, so let's say the government receives, in the
而这里 假设政府税收一千单位黄金 form of taxes and stuff, a thousand gold units.
然后用这些黄金发行两千单位货币 And it issues two thousand units using that gold.
货币声称值一单位 The coins say they're worth a unit,
但按贵金属价值来看 实际只值半单位 but they're actually, in terms of precious metal value, worth a half.
政府用这种货币支付 支付给军队 So it pays its expenses that way. It pays the army.
让人们接受这种钱币 It gets people to accept this money.
但当人们用这些货币的时候 But when most people go to buy stuff, they are going to find
东西会贵50% 因为硬币质量不那么好 that the stuff is 50% more expensive, because their coins are not actually very good.
政府会慢慢做这个事情 The governments tend to do this gradually, hoping the
希望人们一开始不要察觉 people don't notice in the first place, or that
比如通胀是10% 不算很糟 if the inflation is say, 10%, it's not so bad.
不过货币掺假一旦开始 But once having embarked on the debasement of the coinage,
就会逐渐不可收拾 如格雷欣法则所述 this tends to get out of control because of the famous Gresham's law--
即劣币驱逐良币 格雷欣是十八世纪经济学家 an 18th century economist-- that bad money drives out good.
如果我有一枚好的罗马货币sestertium If I have good sestertia, or Roman currency, with the full
它含有标的那么多银 一整单位 measure of silver that they say they have, one full unit,
另一个则声称有一整单位 其实只有半单位 and I've got other coins that say one full unit, but only have half,
我会存其良币 用掉劣币 I'm going to try to get rid of the bad ones and hoard the good ones.
只有到万不得已或者获得溢价时才会使用 And only spend the good ones if I absolutely have to, or demand a premium on them.
因此 就只有劣币疯狂流通 So therefore, there are all these crappy coins circulating
良币都被人们当作自己的财产存起来 like mad, and the good ones retreat into peoples' wealth--
当时还没有床垫 他们可能会放到盒子里或床下面 they don't really have mattresses then-- but into their store boxes, or under their beds,
这就造成了越来越严重的通胀 creating in itself more and more inflation.
通胀很猛烈 价格上涨 So you have a fierce inflation. Prices go up.
人们不知道物品值多少 开始物物交换 People don't know the value of things. They start bartering.
恶性通胀对罗马的经济非常不利 And the Roman economy is very, very adversely affected, as hyperinflation tends to.
最终的问题是地方精英的毁灭 And a final problem is the ruin of the local elite,
部分是由于经济混沌 部分由于更深层次的原因 partly because of this economic chaos, but partly from deeper causes.
这个的重要性 我上次就提到过 The importance of this is something that I alluded to
这让帝国无法拧成一股绳 last time, and that is that the Empire could not be held
不管政府有多大 都无法将帝国捏合在一起 together, really, by the government, however big the government was.
这需要地方上有钱人的共同合作 It required the cooperation of wealthy people with ties to their native city.
这些人赞助竞技 城市改善 It was these people who sponsored games, civic improvements,
维护庙宇 某种程度上维持地方秩序 maintained the temples, and kept a kind of local order.
三世纪危机毁灭了这些精英 The third century crisis undermines this elite.
一部分原因是社会的军事化 This elite is undermined by the militarization of society.
另一部分原因则是税收的增加 They are, to some extent, ruined by taxation and increased taxation.
他们有权能过得富有 但无权逃避税收 They're just powerful enough to be well-off, but not powerful enough to evade taxation.
还有一部分原因是帝国更加世界主义 But they also tend to be undermined by an Empire that's more cosmopolitan,
这让精英显得没那么重要 where local elites don't matter as much.
而移动频繁的军人则更加重要 Where, for example, military people who move around a lot, are more important.
我强调这些精英的毁灭不仅是因为 And I emphasize this, not only because of these elites
将帝国维持为一个整体这一角色 themselves and their role in holding the Empire together,
还因为他们的毁灭和基督教的关系 but we're going to talk about this when we talk about Christianity.
这些精英毁灭后 地方宗教随之毁灭 Because when the local elites are ruined, so is local religion.
地方宗教是多神的 And local religion means polytheism.
假设我是萨迪斯城的名门望族 If I am of a grand family of, let's say the city of Sardis
萨迪斯在小亚细亚 现土耳其境内 in Asia Minor, in modern Turkey,
我祖先一直崇拜的女神西布莉 and I feel that my ancestors have always been involved in the worship of the goddess Cybele
我是市里的官员 and I am a votary, or an officer, or like
是治理这里的行政人员 a member of the governing board of the club, or society
我执行着对西布莉的拜祭 我会非常忠实于我的神灵 that runs the cult of Cybele, I'm going to feel very loyal to that local deity.
但北非而来 驻扎在萨迪斯的军官 But if I come from North Africa, and I'm in Sardis because that's where my army is,
才不会关心当地的神灵 I'm not going to don't care about some local.
就像到伊利诺伊大学上学的人 No more than you might care about a club that's important
不关心耶鲁大学的社团活动 at Yale, if you went to the University of Illinois.
或外地来的不喜欢吃批萨的人 No more important than you might feel about pizza in New
不关心纽黑文的批萨一样 Haven, if you came from somewhere else and didn't like pizza.
这种当地祭祀 不懂的人 自然也不会关心 It's just like this local cult, and you don't understand it, and you don't care.
于是宗教方面会被人们关注的将是 So the kind of things you will care about, we'll see, religiously.
之后我们要讨论的跨地域宗教 如基督教 But they will tend to be religions that cross borders, like Christianity.
这些不是一个地方上认可的宗教 Religions that are not identified with one place and
不只涉及到一位当地神灵及当地民众 one god, in the sense of local god, local temple, my people.
一片混乱中 284年戴克里先打败了自己的前任 卡里努斯 So into this mess Diocletian-- because Diocletian defeats his
一片混乱中 284年戴克里先打败了自己的前任 卡里努斯 predecessor, Carinus in battle in 284.
戴克里先也是个将领 Diocletian is a general.
284年时的情况似乎没有不同 In 284, it would have seemed like more of the same.
不过戴克里先的统治一直持续到305年 然后退位 But Diocletian rules until 305 and he abdicates.
他将皇位传给了别人 He passes the power to someone else.
戴克里先是很典型帝国军人 He is, however, very typical of the military class of the Empire.
他出身卑微 He came from nowhere, socially.
父亲曾经是达尔马提亚(现克罗地亚沿岸)的奴隶 He was the son of an ex-slave from Dalmatia, modern coastal Croatia.
戴克里先的宫殿现在还位于 You can still see his palace in the Croatian
亚得里亚海边的克罗地亚城市斯普利特 city of Split on the Adriatic.
这其实是他卸任后的宫殿 His retirement palace, actually.
在他的严格领导下 帝国进行了改革 Under his severe guidance, the Empire was reformed.
他的改革方式实际是军事化 And the way it was reformed was that it was, in effect, militarized.
戴克里先不能算是个好将军 但肯定是个英明的管理者 Diocletian was not a great general, but he was a brilliant manager.
他是一名杰出的官僚机构组织者 And he was a brilliant bureaucratic organizer.
我用"官僚"这个词 不是想表达"低效"的概念 I used the term bureaucracy, not to mean inefficient,
政府在他的管理下卓有成效 useless administration, but administration.
政府的官员能够各司其职 Administration officers of the state, who are capable of
或也许无法各司其职 doing their jobs, or maybe not capable of doing their jobs.
不过他们… But who are nevertheless--
我不想用"官僚"这个词混乱了价值判断 I'm not making a value judgment with the term bureaucracy--
我只是想说政府和部门设置的增殖 I simply mean the proliferation of government and government offices.
戴克里先着手将社会军事化 Diocletian is responsible for the militarization of society.
也就是在军队周围组建社会 以此来保护社会 That is, building society around the army in order to protect it.
他还着手实施更有效 最终更重的税收 And he is responsible for a more efficient, and
他还着手实施更有效 最终更重的税收 ultimately, burdensome form of taxation.
这两者的关系很明显 只有足够大量的税收 The two are enlinked because, as we know, you have to pay to
才能保证军队有效运作 have a large and effective military.
戴克里先并不打算成为一个革命者 Diocletian did not set out to be a revolutionary.
他的目标很保守 His aims were conservative.
他希望挽救 维持 恢复罗马帝国到235年前的状态 He wanted to save, preserve, restore, the Roman Empire of the pre-235 era.
只是方法激进了一些 His methods were radical.
他随时准备好激进措施 He was willing to undertake radical measures.
有一点曾经议论很多 现在基本没人说起了 And the debate among historians, now somewhat muted.
一段时间 很多历史学者认为他毁掉了帝国 Many historians at one time felt that he had basically destroyed the Empire.
因为他让帝国如此官僚化 如此军事化 By making it so bureaucratic, so militarized, so
政府机构如此臃肿 不再是罗马帝国 heavy-handed, in terms of government, it no longer was the Roman Empire.
面目全非 It was something else.
而现在这已经不再被认为 Now the reason this is no longer
是一个大问题 一个大争议 exactly considered to be a big problem, or a big controversy,
原因从Wickham的书中可以读到 you'll see when we come to read Wickham.
社会具有帝国的印记 The Empire has an impress on society.
他称之为"帝国的负担" There is what he calls the Burden of Empire, but it is,
不过同时 帝国并非极权 并未控制一切 at the same time, not a totalitarian empire that controls everything.
社会具有同政府不同的身份 Society has an identity that's different from the government.
他有三大目标 So he has three goals.
一 解决皇位继承权问题 One, solving this problem of the imperial succession.
二 稳定经济 Two, stabilizing the economy.
三 保护边疆 Three, protecting the frontiers.
这三点中 他其实只成功实现了第三点 保护边疆 Of these three, he's actually only really successful in the third, protecting the frontiers.
他建立的继承体系并没有延续很久 He devises a system, that we're going to talk about in a moment, of succession,
一会我们会讲到 but it does not really outlast him very long.
经济虽然有所好转 但并不完全是因为他的政策 The economy does get fixed but, not exactly because of his policies.
他真正成功的是 What he's really successful at, and what changes most
显著改变了统治地位的意义 dramatically, is what rulership means.
包括皇帝的形象 变得更神圣 更强大 That includes the figure of the Emperor, who becomes more sacred and more powerful,
在形象和管理中都是如此 in terms of imagery, as well as administration.
改变政府管理 特别是税收 Changes in the administration, of taxes in particular, and
然后目标是改变和扩张军队 then that goal of his to change and grow the military.
军队规模增大了也许一倍 The size of the army grew, probably doubled.
大致是从20万 增加到了40万 Maybe, just as a ballpark figure, from 200,000 troops to 400,000 troops.
这个巨大的增长需要钱来支撑 This is a major, major increase that had to be paid for.
这就需要更多的税收 And it had to be paid for by taxation, and from a
而人们并不会自愿上交更多税 population not particularly eager to volunteer to pay more.
最后 貌似戴克里先没有大幅提高税收 Ultimately, it looks as if Diocletian didn't so much increase taxation,
而是提高了收税效率 as increase the efficiency of its collection.
为了提高收税的效率 In order to increase the efficiency of his collection,
他需要扩增官僚体系 负责税收 he had to increase the bureaucracy charged with monitoring the taxes.
这意味着 首先列出可征税资源的清单 And that means first making an inventory of taxable resources.
社会中没有收入税 There is no income tax in this society because it's an
因为经济更多是基于土地 而不是工资 economy based more on land than on salaries.
收入税很简单 因为你可以记录人们收入了多少 An income tax is easy because you can keep records of what people are earning.
现在的政府就发现从工资中扣除一部分很容易 The government, to this day, finds it much easier to take a portion of your wages,
因为公司会告诉政府 你的收入是多少 because it knows from your company what you're being paid.
如果你有其它形式的收入 比如你是服务员 If you're being paid in some other form, like you're a waiter,
很多钱来自于小费 政府就很难办了 and a lot of your money is in tips, that's harder for the government.
如果你的财富是财产形式 确定价值会有困难 If your wealth is in property, it's hard to put a value on that.
比如你有地产 You own estates.
你租地给一些租客 You have people who are free tenants, who rent land from
他们支付钱 产品或劳动力给你 you, and pay you in money, or produce, or labor.
你有些奴隶 有个水磨 You have some slaves. You have a water mill.
这些东西如何交税呢 How do you pay taxes on all of this stuff.
逃税的可能性会更大 The opportunities for evasion are greater.
那么 政府的首要任务就是 找很多人来评估价值 So the first bureaucratic tasks was just to have a lot of people could value things,
这些人员到土地上说 "好 这个农场值这么多钱" who could come into a territory and say OK, this farm is worth so much,
这需要很多人 and it has these many people.
他们开发了一套生产元素的价值评估体系 They develop a system to evaluate productive units of
包括土地和人口 然后根据一个公式来征税 things like land, and population, and to tax them according to a formula.
如果我有很多土地 但不是很好的土地 So I have a lot of land, but it's not very good land.
土地不能让很多人维持生计 I don't have a lot of people making a living off it.
对我征税的税率就会很低 I will be taxed at a lower rate than someone was
而有的土地面积虽然只有一半 但人口是两倍 maybe half that land, but twice the people, better soil,
这种土地的征税率就比较高 more clearance of forest, whatever the reason.
税率会变化 It changes.
每隔15年 政府都会重新估值 So every 15 years, the government changes its estimation.
有了这种税收体系之后 A second means, once you have this taxation system in place,
另一种将帝国联系在一起并进行更好统治的方式 of bringing the Empire together and dominating it more,
是让军队能够直接获得资源 is to have the army really have first call on the resources of the state.
这就出现了只针对军队的国家补给体系 We now start to have a state supply system for the army alone.
避免国家出现掺假货币的情况 This allows the state to avoid dealing with that debased currency.
比如 国家会征收小麦给到军队 So for example, the state just goes in and takes wheat and gives it to the army,
而不是收钱 然后买小麦给军队 without taking money, buying wheat, giving that to the army.
戴克里先有效将帝国凝聚为一个整体 还通过传达系统 Diocletian binds the Empire together, also very effectively, by a postal system.
这里指的是 骑手和马匹的体系 Post in this case meaning a system of riders, horses,
让皇帝的通信比任何人都快 communications, that allows the Emperor to go faster than
比任何人都能更快获得信息 anyone else, to have news quicker than anyone else, to
比任何人都能更快发送指令 send orders quicker than anyone else.
另外 还有对逃税的更严厉惩罚 And also, more punishment for things like tax evasion.
不仅是逃税人本身被杀死 It's not just that people get killed for not paying their taxes,
监禁或拷打 or imprisoned, or tortured,
其他人也会受牵连 but that groups are responsible.
如果我逃税 不仅是我会受罚 Not only that if I don't pay my taxes, I get punished, but
同一村子里的其他人也会跟着受罚 if you and I live in the same village, and you don't pay your taxes, I get punished.
或至少是支付我逃的这部分税 Or at the very least, taxed for the part that you evaded.
最重要的政治改革 But the most important change in government is the
是四帝共治体系的建立 establishment of what's called the Tetrarchy.
四个人共同统治 The Tetrarchy is the rule of four.
四个统治者 戴克里先首先将帝国一分为二 Four rulers Diocletian divides the Empire, first in two--
东和西 这一举动对之后1200年产生了深远影响 East, West. A very significant move that will have consequences for the next 1,200 years.
他委任一位共治皇帝统治西部 He then appoints a co-Emporer to rule in the West,
而他统治东部 while he rules in the East.
他们两人再各委任一名助手 这是第三位和第四位 And they each appoint a helper, number three and number four.
两位皇帝被称为奥古斯都 The two Emperors are called Augusti, Emperors,
两位帮手被称为凯撒 and the two helpers are Caesars.
凯撒从属于各奥古斯都 So they're subordinate to their respective Augusti,
并提供辅助 and they're supposed to help them.
为什么建立这种体系 Why this system?
这是为了克服帝国太大 通讯管理不便的问题 This is really to overcome the problems of size, communication, administration.
帝国太大 一个人很难统治好 It's a statement that the Empire is too big for one man to rule.
主要皇帝地位也被提高了 But the chief Emperors are also exalted now.
他们不再只是第一公民或君王 There's no longer a pretense that they're just first citizens or princes.
他们身着紫袍 They are clothed in purple.
不在公众面前经常露面 They don't move a lot in public audiences.
这一般有两种情况 We're familiar with this kind of dichotomy between the
政治人物作为遥不可及的权威 political figure as distant authority, versus the
或政治人物至少假装就像你我一样 political figure at least pretending to be just like you and me.
我们这里是后者 We're in the era of the latter.
而戴克里先时期引入的作法是 The Diocletianic period ushers in a period when the Emperor
你只能在大仪式上远远仰视皇帝 is distant, glimpsed, product of ceremonies, wearing a lot
皇帝身着滑稽 但华丽的服饰 of very funny-looking, but fancy clothes.
他不在公众面前经常露面 他是"神" He doesn't appear a lot in public. He's a god.
你不能走到他面前和他握手打招呼 You don't go up to him and shake hands, or say hi.
你要跪在他脚下 不能看他 直到他让你平身 You throw yourself at his feet, and don't look at him until he tells you to.
四帝共治 想法很好 但其实行不通 So the tetrarchy, great idea, it really doesn't work.
首先 皇帝之间不一定会协作 Because, first of all, the Emperors don't necessarily cooperate.
凯撒也不一定会服从奥古斯都 The Caesars don't necessarily cooperate with the Emperors.
285年 戴克里先任命了一名凯撒 And so in 285 Diocletian nominates a Caesar,
286年任命他为共治奥古斯都 and then makes him, in 286, a co-Augustus.
这个人的名字叫马克西米安 And this man is named Maximian.
293年 戴克里先和马克西米安任命了两位凯撒 In 293, Diocletian and Maximian appoint two Caesars.
具体人员名字我就不劳烦大家记了 I think I'm not going to burden you with the personnel.
周三我会提供一份讲义 里面会有一些信息 I will hand out something on Wednesday that gives you some of this information.
戴克里先和马克西米安在东部任命伽列里乌斯 Diocletian and Maximian appoint Galerius in the East
西部任命君士坦提乌斯 这两个不要求记 and Constantius in the Western-- you don't have to remember who these are--
两人分别娶各自奥古斯都的女儿为妻 and each of them marries a daughter of their respective Augusti.
看起来是个很棒的体系 This looks like a great system.
305年 戴克里先和马克西米安退位 In 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicate
然后这两个人成为奥古斯都 and then two people become Augusti.
凯撒晋升为奥古斯都 The two Caesars rise up to be Augusti
然后他们指派自己的新凯撒 and they appoint their own new Caesars.
该体系在306年后开始崩塌 It breaks down beginning in 306.
一名奥古斯都的儿子没被任命 One of the sons of one of these Augusti is not
这让他气急败坏 并发起叛乱 appointed, and he's mad, and he revolts.
然后两名奥古斯都也处不好关系 And then the Augusti don't get along.
306到312年的混沌之中 产生了一位新皇帝 Out of this chaos between 306 and 312 emerges one Emperor.
这就是君士坦丁 And that is Constantine.
周三我们会仔细讲到君士坦丁 And we'll be talking about Constantine on Wednesday.
四帝共治失败了 So the Tetrarchy fails.
戴克里先的第二大举动 Diocletian's second big initiative was over this
是针对经济 设法应对通胀 question of the economy, and ways of combating inflation.
戴克里先颁布了价格诏令 Diocletian issued a so-called edict on prices.
价格诏令是要让将商品价格固定 The edict on prices attempted to set a fixed price for goods.
如果卖得比固定价格贵 你会受到严厉惩罚 And if you sold them for more than that, you were to be severely punished.
这是古老国家应对通胀的做法 This is the kind of classic example of the state trying to
通过指定价格 combat inflation by dictating prices.
你们很多人可能还不熟悉通胀 Most of you are not familiar with inflation, because we
因为现在利率很低 价格相对稳定 have lived in an era of very low interest and fairly stable prices.
通胀就是物价上涨 你可以想想 But if you think of those commodities whose inflation
比如石油价格飞涨 这会造成混乱 you are familiar with, like petroleum, it is very dislocating.
造成恐慌 恐慌又会反过来刺激上涨 It starts to create panics, and the panics then feed into the inflation.
因为人们都会想办法提前多买些油 Just as, if people keep on getting gas because they think
因为不买就会涨 that it's going to go up in price, then there's a greater
这样油的需求会上升 价格会进一步上涨 demand for gasoline, and it goes up further in price.
最终 如果只是投机行为 价格又会回落 Eventually, if the thing is really just speculative, it deflates again.
这就是当今时代我们所熟知的商品情况 And that's what's happened with products that we're familiar with in recent times.
不过也有一些结构性的长期通胀 But there is also a kind of structural, longer-term
如美国在70年代经历的那一次 inflation such as America experienced, for example, in the '70s.
理论上 如果出现资源危机 And in theory, if you have resource crises and things
产品短缺 通货膨胀就会越来越严重 that are becoming scarcer, then you ought to have more
产品短缺 通货膨胀就会越来越严重 and more experience with inflation.
1970年代的美国政府也尝试过指定价格 The government in the 1970s in the United States tried also to have an edict on prices.
当时是福特总统 政府规定有一个最高价格 Under President Ford, there was a kind of administration of maximum prices.
这样做的问题在于 促进了黑市交易 The problem with this is that it creates a temptation for black markets,
导致了格雷欣货币法则类似的情况 creates a version of what we were just talking about with Gresham's law of coinage.
如果政府限制番茄只能卖1美元/磅 If you say that tomatoes can only be sold for a dollar a pound,
那么通胀时1美元/磅买到的番茄 then those tomatoes that are being sold for a dollar a pound in a climate of
都是很糟糕的烂番茄 severe inflation will be terrible, will be rotten.
如果愿意秘密支付2美元 你就能买到好的 If you want to pay $2.00 a pound in secret, we have some nice tomatoes for you.
如果你愿意出5美元 And if you want to pay $5.00 a pound, we have some really
我们会有更好的本地种植番茄 nice, locally-grown tomatoes for you.
虽然这些是非法的 但合法市场什么都没有 All of which may be illegal, but the legal market is empty.
这就是指定价格后人们的对策 And this is what happened in response to the edict of prices.
但这并不意味着政府不能… This doesn't mean that the government cannot--
我是说 这仍然存在争议 I mean it still remains debatable, obviously, the
关于政府能还是不能干预这些 degree to which government can or cannot intervene in such things--
但在罗马帝国 这是失败的 but certainly, in the case of the Roman Empire, this failed.
一定程度上让经济重回稳定的是税收改革 What did bring back a measure of economic stability is the reform of the taxation.
这让国家能获取更多资源 The fact that the state simply started getting in more
更少由私人所有 resources, that less was being withheld by private people,
这样国家就能够支付管理和军队成本 and so the state could actually pay for its administrative and military costs.
戴克里先退位后 在斯普利特的宫殿里过着平静的生活 So Diocletian succeeded in abdicating peacefully, spent
戴克里先退位后 在斯普利特的宫殿里过着平静的生活 his retirement in Split in his palace,
也亲眼目睹了四帝共治的部分崩溃 and lived to see the breakdown, or the partial breakdown of the Tetrarchy.
从特定角度来看 他的政策明显失败了 And in certain respects, his policies clearly failed.
价格诏令被废弃 四帝共治无法良好运行 The edict on prices had to be abandoned, the Tetrarchy did not work,
而且镇压基督教上 戴克里先也一败涂地 and Diocletian failed in trying to suppress Christianity.
这个我们还会详细讲到 戴克里先在统治晚期 We'll talk about this some more, but Diocletian, in the late part of his reign,
劈开一些动物 看未来是怎样的 对吧 a couple animals were split open to see what the future would be. Right?
我们想知道是什么情况 不也这么做吗 Isn't that what we all do if you want to figure out what's going to happen?
屠宰一只动物 检查其肝脏 You slaughter an animal and check out its liver.
也可能还检查肾脏和脾脏 Maybe its kidneys and spleen, too.
不过肝脏是主要要看的 But the liver is really what you want to look at.
具体动物是什么我可不清楚 And I don't exactly know what the animal was, what the
以及为什么不摊开来看 organs were, and why they didn't splay out right, but
总之肝脏告诉戴克里先 基督教对此负责 the liver told Diocletian that the Christians were responsible for this,
他最好是找基督徒算账 and that he'd better go after them.
四世纪早期 确实有对基督徒的大迫害 So there is this big persecution of Christians in
四世纪早期 确实有对基督徒的大迫害 the first part of the fourth century.
戴克里先显然没有成功 And he certainly didn't succeed in that.
基督教不仅没有被打垮 Not only did the Christians not crumble, but of course
而且戴克里先最成功的继承人 Diocletian's most effective successor, six years after he
之后还皈依了基督教 abdicated, would convert to Christianity.
不过这不能掩盖戴克里先在很多方面的成功 But Diocletian is extremely important, and in many respects, extremely successful.
他不仅支撑起了一个步履蹒跚的帝国 He did more than prop up a tottering Empire.
不仅是将一个蹒跚的帝国改革为蹒跚的专制政体 He did more than just transform a tottering Empire into a kind of tottering tyranny.
他挽救了罗马帝国 He saved the Roman Empire.
挽救了一百年 He saved the Roman Empire for 100 years.
像这样一个总共七八百年的历史课程 When you take a course like this that goes for 700, 800
你可能会忽视或弄混某几个世纪 years, you start to hurl centuries around and get confused among them.
但任何存在了一百年的政体都是很值得称道的 But any polity that exists for 100 years is fairly impressive.
特别是一个即将坍垮的政体 又重振旗鼓存在了一百年 Or a polity that looks like it's about to collapse, and then is restored for 100 years.
罗马帝国 照惯例来讲 The Roman Empire, conventionally speaking, is
西部灭亡是在五世纪晚期 thought to have collapsed in the West in the late fifth century.
不过在东部 可以说 戴克里先的改革 In the East however, arguably, Diocletian's reforms last for
持续了接近1200年 more on the order of 1,200 years.
东罗马帝国 或者说拜占庭帝国 到1453年才灭亡 The Eastern Empire, the Byzantine Empire would fall in 1453.
直到灭亡那天 它都还沿用戴克里先的行政和军事形态 And to its last day, it was modeled on Diocletianic administrative and military forms.
当时的人们肯定明显感受到 自己被救于灾难 People at the time clearly thought that they'd been saved from disaster.
你可以看看四世纪的遗迹 比如 If you look at fourth century artifacts, things like mosaics
餐厅地上马赛克装饰上 通常有人们的座右铭 on the floors of dining rooms, people often put mottos there.
这些座右铭包括 "随处都是快乐时光" And their mottos are things like "Joyful times everywhere."
或者"一个复苏的世界" or "A world restored."
四世纪 The fourth century
可以看作是持续阴暗的年代 is interpretable as an era of increasing gloom, because we
毕竟五世纪帝国就将灭亡 know that in the fifth century things are going to collapse.
不过生活在四世纪的人显然不会说 But people in the fourth century are not saying to each
很高兴我活在四世纪 other, I'm so glad I'm alive in the fourth century, because
因为我不想看到五世纪的惨状 I don't want to see what's going to happen in the fifth.
他们很满足于蛮族回到多瑙河 莱茵河以外 They are just happy that the barbarians are back across the Danube and the Rhine,
波斯也多少被限定在疆界以外的现状 the Persians are more or less controlled along the frontier.
确实 税负重了点 Yes, taxes are high.
确实 精英阶层现在是没受过什么教育的军人 Yes, the elite is some sort of riff-raff, and not as well
变得粗暴无礼 educated, and they're military people.
不过 总的来讲 一切都还能良好运作 But basically, things are working,
复苏和繁荣让原来繁荣过的人们看到了希望 prosperity is restored to the people who had been prosperous before, the
本地精英衰落了 但这不像原来那么"看得见" local elites have declined, but it's not so visible as it had been.
不过确实有一些变化 But there are some changes.
我们是后见之明 我们能看到这些变化 Changes that we can, with the proverbial benefit of hindsight, see.
重心的改变 Changes in the center of gravity.
现在主导的地区是军事基地所在的地区 The dominant places are now places that are military bases.
这些大城市 有罗马所有的设施 They are great cities, with all the amenities of Rome.
包括竞技场 城门 That is, stadiums, gateways.
现在保存最好的是德国的特里尔 One of the best-preserved of these to this day is Trier in Germany.
特里尔在莱茵河以西的摩泽尔河岸 Trier, on the Moselle behind [correction: west of] the Rhine,
有一系列很好的罗马遗迹 has a wonderful collection of Roman ruins.
尼格拉城门 A gateway, the Porta Nigra,
一个剧院 一个竞技场 a theater, a sports arena, a
一个巴西利卡 原来是法院 后来变成了教堂 basilica, a law court turned into a church.
特里尔的伟大就是因为边疆位置 The reason Trier was great was because of the frontier.
它是帝国最重要的城市之一 It was one of the most important cities in the Empire
是由于军事的战略重要性 because of the military, because of its strategic importance.
其它城市也是如此 And there are other cities that are like.
比如米兰 重要性超过了罗马 Milan, for example, becomes more important than Rome.
因为米兰更靠北 Because Milan is further north,
能更快奔赴多瑙河和莱茵河 it's a good place to get to the Danube and to the Rhine quickly,
而罗马深处地中海之内 whereas Rome is buried in the Mediterranean.
这是一个新世界 So we're in a new world.
更详细的将在周三讨论 We'll discuss more of the new world on Wednesday.
我们还将看到君士坦丁更彻底的改革 And we will see that Constantine, in some cases, completely revolutionizes things.
部分也是对戴克里先工作的延续 And in other cases, continues Diocletian's work.
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