好 我们来到第三周了 Right we are onto the third week now,
这周我们回学习 this week we are going to learn how to identify and
如何识别并分析论点 how to analyze arguments and
如果把它们设定成逻辑的课本形式 how to set them out logic book style.
这样做的意义在于 And the point of doing this is it enables you to
能使你们去除 get rid of all sort of things
与论点不相关的论点 that are irrelevant to the argument and
你们设定逻辑的课本形式 所以论点的结构 you set up the argument so the structure of the argument
是非常清楚的 也易于评价 is very clear that way it's much easier to evaluate.
好 我们开始吧 Okay let's get started.
我们照例回顾一下上周的内容 Okay a brief recap of last week as usual.
如果你回忆到我们看到论点的两种基本形式 If you recall we looked at two basic types of arguments,
演绎和归纳 我们说演绎论点 deductive and inductive and we said deductive arguments
是那种 别看讲义 are such that come on tell me don't look at your handouts,
告诉我什么是演绎论点 你怎样识别 tell what a deductive argument is, how do you recognize it.
学生:前提 Students: premises
教授:哦 好 Prof.: Ooo, aren't you good.
你们做的不好吗?你们很对 Haven't you done well? You're absolutely right. That's right.
前提的真理 The truth of their premises
使结论的真理确定 makes the truth of their conclusion certain.
或者那些使用保证这个词的人 Or those of you who used the word guarantee,
前提的真理保证了结论的真理 the truth of the premise guarantees the truth of the conclusion.
好 完全对 Well done, that's absolutely right.
好 归纳论点是 Okay Inductive arguments are such that
学生:前提的真理更加(无声) Student: The truth of the premise is more… (Inaudible)
教授:很好 我听见你们明白了 Prof.: good okay, I can hear that you have got it as well.
我这周稍微变化一下 Okay I have put it slightly differently this week;
你们记得上周 you remember last week
我说或多或少的时候遇到了一点问题 I got in trouble by phrasing it more or less
因为我们不想前提变得比 because we don't want the premises to be less probable
结论更不可能 是吗? than the conclusion do we?
前提的真理 So, the truth of their premises
使得结论的真理更加可能 makes the truth of their conclusion more likely.
你知道在 And as you know its much more likely
太阳在整个宇宙的历史中升起 as in the case of the sun has risen
所以明天也会升起 in the whole history of the universe,
这个例子中更加可能 therefore it will rise tomorrow.
这很可能 不是吗?这差不多很确定 And its really pretty likely isn't it? Its almost more certain.
或者有点更加可能 Or slightly more likely.
事实是每次你们看到我 The fact that every time you have seen me
我更可能戴耳环 I was wearing earrings makes it slightly more likely that
下次你看到我的时候 我会戴着耳环 the next time you see me I will be wearing earrings.
但是演绎是一个二选一的东西 So whereas deduction is an either or thing
归纳是一种程度 and induction is a matter of degree.
一个论点或多或少有力 An argument is more or less strong.
好 我们看着一些论点 Good, we then looked at some examples of arguments
通过它们的形式演绎有效 that are deductively valid in virtue of their form.
你们记得我用P和Q等等 And do you remember I was using Ps and Qs and so on
来说肯定前件律和否定式 to talk about things like Modus Ponens and Modus Tolens
和之类的东西 如果P那么Q P所以Q and so on and so forth. If P then Q, P therefore Q.
这通过它们的形式有效 That's valid in virtue of its form
因为这与你谈论的东西没什么关系 because it doesn't matter what you're talking
也不管你用P和Q来代表什么句子 it doesn't matter what sentences you put in for P and Q,
如果论点的结构是如果P那么Q P所以Q if the structure of the argument is if P then Q, P therefore Q.
这是有效的吧? it will be valid okay?
那么我们看一些论点的内容 Then we looked at some arguments that were in virtue of
你们记得什么呢? their content can you remember any of those?
这有点难 This is a bit harder
因为我们没有很多例子 because there weren't many examples we gave.
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:好 Prof.: good.
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:不完全是 Prof.: Not quite.
撒谎是错误的 所以我们不应该撒谎 是的 Lying is wrong therefore we shouldn't lie, exactly.
你们明白 如果那是一个演绎有效的论点 Do you see how that is-if that's a deductively valid argument
它是通过错误这个词的意思 不是吗 it in the virtue of the meaning of the word wrong. Isn't it?
撒谎是错的 所以我们不应该撒谎 Lying is wrong therefore we shouldn't lie.
关键是如果你正确理解了错误这个词 The fort is if you understand the word wrong properly
如果认为撒谎是错误的 如果你们相信撒谎是错误的 if think lying is wrong, if you believe lying is wrong
那么你们也相信你们不应该撒谎 then you'll also believe that you shouldn't lie.
这不意味着你们不会撒谎 Doesn't mean you won't lie,
但是如果你觉得有罪恶感或者之类的 but if you do you'll feel guilty or whatever
但是通过错误这个词的意思 but that's in virtue of the meaning of the word wrong.
你们能想到其他的例子吗 Can you think of any other examples
也是通过内容 that were in virtue of the content,
一个具体词的意思? the meaning of a particular word?
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:好 我不记得了 Prof.: right I can't remember
我们当时用的例子 the particular example I used there.
我觉得可能没有 I don't think that would have been one actually.
我可能错了 I might be wrong about that
但是我觉得我用过一个例子 but I have a feeling I used that as an example
当做通过形式有效的例子 as one of the ones that was valid in virtue of their form.
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:不 实际上还晚 Prof.: Nope. In fact that came later.
学生:时序 Student: Temporal
教授:对 时序 这是一个 Prof.: Yep, temporal. That was one.
你们记得是什么吗? Can you remember how that went?
学生:如果今天下雨 Student: If it's raining today
那么明天也会下雨 then tomorrow it will have rained today.
教授:对 今天下雨了 Prof.: that's right. It's raining today
那么明天也会下雨 then tomorrow it will have rained today.
这是因为明天这个词 That's because of the word tomorrow and
和我们对之前和之后这两个词的理解 our understanding of the word before and after,
昨天和今天这两个词的理解之类的 很好 yesterday and today and so on. Okay good.
我们我们继续讲归纳论点 Then we moved on to inductive arguments and
我们看一些不同的归纳的论点 we looked at several different arguments
你们能记得哪些? of an inductive argument. Can you remember any of those?
你刚才提到了一个 You mentioned one moment ago.
学生:爱因斯坦那个 Student: The Einstein one
教授:是的 爱因斯坦怎么了? Prof.: Yes, what about Einstein?
是哪方面的论点? It was an argument from?
学生:权威 Student: Authority.
教授:权威 好 Prof.: Authority. Good.
这个人是这方面的权威 Okay so this man is on authority of this,
所以他这样说 therefore he said this,
所以他是这方面的权威 and therefore he is on authority of this.
这种看待方式是不好的 That's a bad bad way of looking at it.
但是你们能看到这是种什么原则? But you can see that's a principle way of what?
每个归纳论点背后都有什么? What's behind every inductive argument?
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:逻辑 Prof.: Logic
学生:连续性 Student: Continuity
教授:连续性 对 Prof.: Continuity, yes,
谁能用我上周的方式写出来? can anyone put it in the way I put it last week?
休谟的原则是最著名的 大卫 休谟 A principle Hume is most famous for. David Hume.
他说原则是 He said the principle of the
学生:统一性 Student: uniformity
教授:什么的统一性 Prof.: Uniformity of
学生:自然 Student: Nature
教授:对 自然的统一性 Prof.: of nature that's right.
过去发生的将来也会发生 So what's happened in the past will happen in the future.
如果过去像这样 If it was like that in the past
将来也像这样 it going to be like that in the future and so on.
所以自然统一性的原则是 So the principle of the uniformity of nature
每个归纳论点背后 which underlies every inductive argument,
都不能证明自己 which can't itself be argued for
因为这是循环证明 because arguing for it takes us in a circle.
为什么将来会像过去? Why is the future like the past?
因为一直是这样 Because it always has been again
我们所依赖的归纳 不是吗? we are relying on induction aren't we?
我们会看一些例子 So we are going to look at some examples.
这周我们会学到 This week we will be learning
如何识别和分析论点 how to identify and analyze arguments and
如何把它们设定成逻辑的课本形式 how to set them out logic book style.
如果你这周有论点 So if you got some arguments this week
在分析上有困难 that you had trouble analyzing
或者不容易识别的话 or you had trouble recognizing you'll able to
这周你就能用那些论点 use those arguments this week and
实践我们今天要学的内容 practice what we're going to learn today.
好 我们开始 Okay so let's start by
先看看如何把它们设定成逻辑的课本形式 seeing how an argument is set out logic book style.
你们对这个论点都恶心了是吗? You're getting sick of this argument aren't you?
我也有点恶心了 I am getting sick of this argument
但是这里设定成逻辑的课本形式 but here it is again set out logic book style.
你们不用把前提1全都写出来 You don't have to write out premise one in full
就写P! 或者什么都不写 you can just write P1, or you don't even have to write that,
假设前提在前面 you can just assume the premises come first
结论在后面 and then the conclusion.
但是这是个设定成逻辑的课本形式的论点 But that's an argument set out logic book style.
你可能会为 You might ask what is the point of
把它们设定成逻辑的课本形式有什么意义 setting out arguments logic book style,
谁知道? has anyone got any idea?
我们为什么要把它们设定成逻辑的课本形式? Why do we bother setting out argument logic book style?
学生:把它解释清楚 Student: to clarify it.
教授:是的 Prof.: yes absolutely. Yep
学生:使它更有力 Student: to make it much stronger.
教授:呃 Prof.: Ughh
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:这不一定 Prof.: it doesn't necessarily
使论点更有力 make the argument stronger.
你们在把它们设定成逻辑的课本形式的时候 What you're doing
所做的是 when you're setting out an argument logic book style
识别论点 just identifying the argument,
所以你不应该能 therefore you shouldn't you shouldn't be able to
使它变强或者变弱 make it either stronger or weaker.
你们所做的都是识别论点是什么 All you're doing is identifying what the argument is.
我们不是在评价 只是在分析 So we are not evaluating it, we are just analyzing
什么是逻辑的课本形式 what it is logic book style.
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible.
教授:好 Prof.: good.
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:好 很对 Prof.: good. That's absolutely right.
我们把它们设定成逻辑的课本形式 What we do setting out an argument logic book style is
就是说我们识别所有的前提 we identify all the premises,
如果有一个暗含的前提 so if there is a suppressed premise
或者假设 我们尽量使它外显 or an assumption we try to make it explicit if we can.
学生:我们能把句子重新排列 (不能理解) Student: can we rearrange the sentences to … (not understandable)
教授:可以 形式就是 Prof.: absolutely so the set format is,
如果你记得这里有什么 if you remember what was on there,
什么是前提和结论 was premise premise conclusion.
我们知道去证明什么 So we know exactly what is being argued for
因为这就是结论 不是吗? because that's what the conclusion isn't it?
我们明确地知道什么放在前面 And we know exactly what is put forth
作为相信那件事的原因 也就是前提 as reasons for believing that thing, which are the premises.
还有其他想法吗 Any other idea on this.
一个两个的 然后我们继续 One two and we'll move on
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:对 Prof.: that's right.
如果你记得我让你们 If you remember I was asking you to
识别前提和论点 identify the premises and the conclusion.
当然你要能那样做 Of course you'll have to be able to do that to
来把它们设定成逻辑的课本形式 set out an argument logic book style.
但是一旦你做到了 But once you've done it,
一旦你把它们设定成逻辑的课本形式 once you've set out an argument
那么就很明显了 logic book style then it's obvious.
是的 一两个 后面那位先生是第一个 Yep. One two and the gentlemen behind you is first.
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:恩 可以 Prof.: uhh um it can do yes.
是的 过一会可能会有 Yes yes, it might come up later on;
我们过会看 we'll look at that later on.
学生:可能误解吗? Student: is it possible to mistaken them?
教授:恩 看多大程度了 我们看看或者提到 Prof.: um hmm, up to a point. As we'll see or cover.
我写下来 当做1 I put down, and put down as 1.
这使我们能加隐含的前提 It enables us to add suppressed premises.
这使我们能消除交叉参考 不相关性 It enables us to eliminate cross references, irrelevancies,
和不一致的术语 and inconsistent terms.
好 这使得识别论点 Okay and that makes it much easier to
变得更加简单 identify the argument.
我们全都会讲 We'll go through all this,
如果你没明白 不要担心 so if you don't get it don't worry about it
我们过会会说 we'll cover it in a minute.
这使得评价论点变得更容易 And it makes it much easier to
也是我今天想让你们明白的 evaluate the argument as I hope you'll see today.
表面上 Okay on the surface of it it is easy to
把它们设定成逻辑的课本形式很简单 我们来试试这个 set out arguments logic book style, let's try this one.
你们很熟悉了 And you're familiar with this;
你们看过这个论点 you have seen this argument before.
首先告诉我这个论点的结论 First of all tell me the conclusion of this argument.
告诉我这个论点的结论 Tell me of this is the conclusion.
学生:爱丁堡在牛津北边 Student: Edinburgh is north of oxford.
教授:好 爱丁堡在牛津北边 前提1 Prof.: good Edinburgh is north of oxford. So premise 1
学生:曼彻斯特在牛津北边 Student: Manchester is north of oxford
教授:好 我很高兴你们去掉了因为这个词 Prof.: good. I am glad that you left out the word since
因为那是个逻辑词 不是吗? because that's a logical word isn't it?
那不是前提或者句子的一部分 That is not actually part of the sentence that is the premise.
你们做得很对 So you were absolutely right in leaving that out.
前提1 So Premise 1 then,
你们写下前提1 so you're writing down premise 1
"曼彻斯特在牛津北边" 前提2? “Manchester is north of oxford.” Premise 2?
学生:爱丁堡在曼彻斯特北边 Student: Edinburgh is north of Manchester
教授:爱丁堡在曼彻斯特北边 Prof.: Edinburgh is north of Manchester.
好 结论是 爱丁堡在牛津北边 Good and the conclusion: Edinburgh is north of oxford.
好 你们去掉了因为和和 很好 Good and you left out since and and. Well done.
那两个是逻辑词 Those two are the logical words there.
论点有效性的词 The word on which the validity of the argument
我们一会再说 hangs as we'll see later.
但是我们去掉了它们 But we leave them out
在识别前提和论点的时候 in the identification of the premise and conclusion.
好 试试这个 论点是什么? Okay, let's try this one, what's the conclusion?
学生:木片能浮起 Student: Woodchips float
教授:木片能浮起 对 Prof.: Woodchips float okay yep.
结论是木片能浮起 前提1? The conclusion is that the Woodchips float. Premise 1?
学生:木片由木头制成 Student: woodchips are made up of wood
教授:木片由木头制成 Prof.: woodchips are made up of wood.
学生:木头能浮起 Student: wood float
教授:木头能浮起 好 Prof.: Wood float, good.
你们把逻辑词去除了 很好 Again you left out the logical word and that's right.
我能给你们一个提醒吗? Can I just give you a warning of this?
和是个逻辑词 And is a logical word,
但是这里它与语言的两部分有关 but and here is connecting which two part of language?
两个同样的部分 Two of the same parts of language,
这里联系的 what's it connecting here. Two…
学生:前提? Student: premises?
教授:两个前提 Prof.: two premises okay.
但是前提是什么? But what are premises, they are?
学生:句子 Students: sentences
教授:句子 所以它们连接句子 Prof.: sentences so and here is a sentence connector.
我们连接想要的句子 And we can connect any sentence we want.
这里用来连接这两个句子 Here it is used again connecting these two sentences.
但是这个呢?edipusses是黑白相间的猫 But what about this one: edipusses are black and white cat.
和在这里是连接词 Is and working as a sentence connective there:
edipusses是黑白相间的猫 edipusses are black and white cat.
连接了什么? What's it connecting there?
学生:形容词 Student: adjectives
教授:两个谓语或形容词 Prof.: two adjectives or two predicates is
是我们在逻辑中说的 what we would say in logic.
你们要小心一点 So you've got to be a bit careful
当你看到句子中和的时候 when you see and in a sentence.
有时候有些内容 Sometimes, and will be a part of the content
不是结合了两个句子 而是两个谓语 if it's not combining two sentences but two predicates.
能跟上吗? Are you with me?
注意一下 So just watch out for that, keep an eye open for that.
好 我们把它们设定能逻辑课本形式 Right, good. So we've set those two out logic book style.
试试这个 Now try this one.
好 我现在很认真地对待 Okay now I am not serious about
你们现在试的这个 you trying this one right at this minute.
但是我们在今天结束之前会做 But we are going to do that one before the end of today.
但是这是另一种我们把他们设定成逻辑的课本形式的方式 But this is another way we set it up logic book style
因为我们直接看论点 because we can look straight at those argument and
你能看到形式怎么样 you can pretty much see how the form is.
在其他论点里 In the other ones,
你能直接看到它们是好论点 you can see whether they are good arguments straight up.
那些你们这周在杂志或者报纸中 Those of you who had found arguments in magazines
发现的的论点 or newspapers of this week.
你们的论点像这个吗? Your arguments were for like that one?
学生:是 Student: yes
教授:好 这个很难 Prof.: yes and this is like so much more difficult
因为当我们在酒吧里互相争论时 because when we are in the pub arguing with each other
安乐死是否可以接受 whether euthanasia is acceptable or not
或者我们是否应该帮助自杀等等 or whether we'd go for assisted suicide or not
我们把这些加到论点中 we add all sorts of things to our arguments.
我们说 We say things like
"如果那是真的那么我就是荷兰人" “well if that's true then I am a Dutchman.”
这是什么意思?如果那是真的我就是荷兰人? What does that mean? If that's true I am a Dutchmen.
这在英语里什么意思? What does that mean in English?
学生:这不是真的 Student: it's not true.
教授:当我说如果那是真的我就是荷兰人的时候 Prof.: so when I say if that's true I am a Dutchmen,
我实际上是再说那不是真的 all I am actually saying is that that's not true.
好 我们看看能不能再想一个 Okay. Let's see if I can think of another one?
不能了 因为我有点晕了 No I can't because I am doing this on the top of my head.
在英语里 当我们说我们加上这些口语 In English when we talk we add all sorts of colloquialism,
我们有很多嗯 啊之类的 we had all sorts of things we have all sorts of ums and ahhs
这使得识别论点本身变得很困难 and it makes it very difficult to identify the argument itself,
这是你们做的 and that's what your what you're doing
当你们把他们设定成逻辑的课本形式的时候 when you set out an argument logic book style is that
你们去除了不相关性 you're getting rid of all the irrelevancies.
这里是一组分析论点的步骤 Okay here is a set of steps for analyzing arguments.
我没有用麦克风 I am not using this microphone by the way;
后面能听见吗? can people in the back hear me?
学生:能 Students: yes
教授:这是一组分析论点的句子 Prof.: here is a set of sentences for analyzing arguments
我们今天要按照这些步骤 we are going to follow these steps today,
我的意思是把他们写到白板上 I meant to actually write them out on the board and
我忘了你们要参考 I forgot so you'll have to keep referring back
当我问你们下一步要做什么的时候 when I ask you what do you have to do next.
所以参考第11张演示文稿 So keep referring back to slide 11.
首先 我们看看识别前提和结论 So firstly let's look at identifying premises and conclusion.
我们已经做了很多了 这很简单 We've already done quite a lot of this so this is fairly easy.
我们看了论点的指示词 We've looked at argument indicators and
我给了你们很多 I gave you quite a few here.
当我识别到结论的时候 And then I identified-oh ok-in identifying a conclusion
我们找什么?告诉我什么是结论 what are we looking for? Tell me again what a conclusion is.
另一种说法 Another bit of revision.
学生:相信真理的理由(无声) Student: reasons for believing the truth…inaudible
教授:注意 结论是什么? Prof.: careful now, what is the conclusion?
不是相信其他前提中真理的理由 It's not the reason for the truth of the other premises.
你是说前提吗? Premises, isn't that what you said? Isn't it?
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:这是你要证明的 Prof.: it is what it is you are arguing for. It is the final;
你们搞混了 you were just getting mixed up.
很容易搞混 It's very easy to get it mixed up.
当你搞混的时候 你弄反了 When you get it mixed up you invert it,
当然就都错了 which of course makes you get everything wrong.
这很容易 That's easy to do.
结论 你可以识别哪个是结论 The conclusion, you can tell which is the conclusion
通过看论点中句子的功能 by looking at the function of that sentence in the argument.
结论就是你要证明的 And what the conclusion is the thing you are arguing for.
实际上就是你做出的陈述 It in fact the statement you are making.
前提是? And the premises are?
学生:支持证据的理由 Student: the reason for the supporting evidence.
教授:是 支持证据 Prof.: yea, the supporting evidence.
支持的理由 The supporting reasons.
你们要对证据小心 You've got to be a bit careful with the evidence because
因为它们经常不是证据而是论点 they are not always arguments rather than evidence.
学生:太必须了? Student: so they are too necessary?
(不知道她是不是这么说) (Not sure if that's what she said)
教授:对 好 这个太简单了 Prof.: Yep exactly. Okay good. Uhh here's an easy one.
识别论点的指示词 Identify the argument indicators in these arguments.
第一个? What about the first one?
第一个里面的指示词是什么? Which is the argument indicator in this one
有两个 there are two actually?
学生:因为 Student: since
教授:因为 好 另一个呢? Prof.: Since, good. Is there another one?
学生:因为 Student: for.
教授:因为 好 你很在行 Prof.: For. Well done. You're getting good at this.
这个呢? What about this one?
这次举手我就 Put up your hands this time I am going to ugh
好 这个论点的指示词? okay what's the argument indicator in this one.
找到就举手 Stick your hand up once you've found it.
因为有些人 Because some people,
我承认我思考的慢 and I admit I am one of them think quite slowly,
如果人们喊出来 这没有给他们思考的机会 if people yell out it doesn't give them a chance to think.
好 现在我们可以一起喊了 Okay! Now you can all yell out together.
学生:因为 Student: Because
教授:因为 好 这个呢? Prof.: Because, That's right. Yep good. Ok. What about this one.
再举次手吧 很简单 不是吗? Put your hand up again. Quite easy isn't it?
学生:因为 Student: Since.
教授:对 我们在 Prof.: yep there we are and there it is.
这个红的不好 The red isn't very good is it?
你们看到我把它们标成红色的了吗? Can you see that I marked them all in red?
如果看不到就看你们的讲义 If you can't see you'll see on your handout.
这很丢人 我不知道红色显不出来 That's a shame; I didn't realize the red doesn't show.
好 我们要练习看结论 Okay now, we are going to practice looking at conclusion.
记得我们之前做过 Remember we have done this before
这一点不难 结论是什么? so this isn't difficult at all. What's the conclusion here?
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:什么?别喊 Prof.: What is it? Have A—shhh don't yell out,
再看看论点 have another look at the argument,
当你们发现自己找到结论的时候 when you find yourself have found what the conclusion is,
告诉我 then tell me
学生:苏格拉底会死 Student: Socrates is mortal
教授:苏格拉底会死 对 Prof.: Socrates is mortal. Yes.
为什么搞混了呢? Why did you get that confused?
我是说这很容易搞混 I mean there is a very good reason for getting that confused,
是什么? what is it?
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:什么 什么 什么? Prof.: What what what
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:这不是结尾 Prof.: it's not at the end.
你们希望在结尾看到结论 You are expecting to see the conclusion at the end
不是吗? haven't you?
学生:是的 Student: Yes
教授:但是你们看到了 这个没在结尾 Prof.: But as you've seen, in this one it's not in the end.
它不一定在结尾 在中间不是吗? It doesn't have to be in the end, it's in the middle isn't it?
记住我说的 So remember what I've said.
你们只能通过 You can only tell which the conclusion is by looking at
它在句子中的作用来识别结论 the function played by the particular sentence.
句子中的结论是你要证明的 The conclusion is the sentence that you are arguing for.
这里红色的是你说的 So here is the-its this in red just the one you said
"苏格拉底会死"是结论 “Socrates is mortal” as the conclusion.
找到论点的结论 Okay find the conclusion of this argument.
举手 别喊出来 Okay put up your hand again rather than yelling out.
不用担心 这要花一些时间 And don't worry if it takes you a bit of time.
有些人可能会慢一些 这也好 Some people just do things more slowly and that's fine.
这是什么? Okay what is it?
学生:社会主义必定失败 Student: socialism is doomed to failure
教授:啊 太棒了 你们完全正确 Prof.: ah you're brilliant. Now you are exactly right
"苏格拉底肯定会死" 就是红色的 “Socialism is doomed to failure”, okay as picked out in red.
这个呢?举手 And what about this one? Hands up.
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:对 Prof.: uh yes.
"他们会继续需要工业国家的帮助" “They will continue to need help from industrial nations”
这是一个对将来的小提示 now here's a little hint for something that is coming.
你们记得当我说 Do you remember when I said setting something out
把他们设定成逻辑的课本形式的时候 去除交叉参考 logic book style enables you to remove cross references,
不相关性 和其他的东西 irrelevancies, and whatever the other one was,
看看这个 你们知道我的意思吗? looking at this can you have an idea of what I meant there?
如果明白就举手 好 Put up your hands if you think you see what I mean. Okay
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:不 这不是我的意思 Prof.: Um…No, that's actually not what I mean there.
我在想 我想你觉得 I was thinking um-I think you meant
我对整个论点的意思 what I meant for the whole argument,
但是我实际上是说 but I actually meant in
"他们会继续需要工业国家的帮助" “they will continue to need help from industrial nations”,
看看结论 你们能够明白 just looking at the conclusion there can you see
我可能的意思 what I might have meant when I said we need to
就是在我说去除交叉参考和不一致的术语 remove cross references and inconsistent terms and so on.
学生:实际结论是"新兴国家" Student: The actual conclusion is “Newly emerging nations”
因为他们会继续 because they will continue to need help
需要工业国家的帮助 from industrial nations.
教授:是的 很好 Prof.: Yep well done,
因为他们是一个首语重复参考 because They is an anaphoric reference
因为他把我们带回 because it takes us back to something
已经说过的 that has already been said
我们需要识别 and we need to indentify that
因为当我们分开当做一个结论时 because when we separate it out as a conclusion
我们留下了一个没有意义的论述 不是吗? we are left with a statement that has no meaning. Is it?
他们会继续需要帮助 他们是谁? They will continue to need help..well who is they?
我们需要去除交叉参考 So we need to remove that cross reference
看看之后怎样做 and we'll be seeing how to do that later.
学生:这里也有隐含前提吗? Student: is there also a suppressed premise in there?
教授:是的 Prof.: Indeed there is,
我们一会看 很好 and we'll be looking at that later I think. Good well done.
我把结论标成红色 There's the conclusion I picked out in red.
下周用绿色 I'll pick it out in green next week.
学生:可能你把他们斜体 Student: Perhaps you can put it in italics
这样就能显出来 so it will contrast with the writing.
教授:好主意 Prof.: Yes, that's a good idea. I will do that.
因为这已经是加粗了 但是也行 Because it is already in bold but I can do it
或者我用大写字母? or I can do it in capital letters couldn't i?
好 识别论点所有的前提 okay identify all the premises in this argument
别忘了可能有隐含的前提 and don't forget there might be a suppressed premise.
这可能要花一点时间 别喊 Now this is going to take you a little longer don't call out,
最好写下来 you might have to write it down.
如果你识别了论点的所有前提 请举手 Put up your hand when you've identified the premises
提示 有两个 of that argument. And hint: there are two of them.
完成了就举手 Put up your hand when you've finished.
如果找到了 你们要改写一下 You'll have to paraphrase a little bit and if your finding that,
别担心 don't worry about it.
如果你没把握 if your thinking that can't be right
因为我不用同样的词 because I am not using the exact same words.
别担心 改写很好 Don't worry about that paraphrase is fine.
不要改变意思 What you mustn't do is change the meaning of anything
但是把语法改对 but paraphrasing it to get the grammar right
或者怎么样都好 你能说说看吗? or whatever is fine. Okay right, would you like to tell us sir?
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:是 这是前提1 Prof.: yep okay that's premise one.
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:又对了 Prof.: Correct again
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:很好 有其他的吗? Prof.: yes that will do. Any variations on those themes.
这里有 So here it is.
前提1 繁荣的经济需要刺激 Premise 1: incentives are needed for a prosperous economy.
前提2:社会主义不能提供刺激 Premise two: Socialism did not provide incentives.
结论:社会主义肯定失败 Conclusion: Socialism was doomed to failure.
好 你们看到两个前提了吗 Okay do you see where both those premises come from?
哪个是隐含的? Which one was the suppressed premise?
学生:第一个 Student: The first one
教授:是的 第一个是隐含的 Prof.: Yes the first one was suppressed
在原来的论典礼是外显的 in the original argument but was made explicit
就像我们把他们设成逻辑的课本形式 as we set out the argument logic book style.
如果有其他的 And if you had any variations on this theme.
只要是同样意思就好 That's fine so long as it has the same meaning.
谁想检查一下吗? Does anyone want to check some?
学生:还有一个隐含的前提 Student: is there another suppressed premise
不能理解 in there? …not understandable
教授:我想你在想 Prof.: um well I think what you're thinking of-
好 这是你想的吗? well is this what you're thinking of?
"肯定失败" “doomed to failure”
如果你有一个繁荣的经济 you want something like you'll only succeed
你才会成功 if you have a prosperous economy don't you?
这是 Um that's really an –
你从前提里知道的 不是吗? you've got that from premise one haven't you?
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:或者你可以有 Prof.: or you could have something like
"只有一个繁荣的经济 “you could have succeeded only if
你才可能成功" 你可以加上那个 you have a prosperous economy” you could add that.
你不需要 如果你使它外显 You don't need to-quite also if you make it explicit
你可能发现自己 是我的手机吗? everything you might find yourself-um is that my mobile?
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:是你们的 真糟 Prof.: no it's yours, good. Bad.
但是比是我的好 Um but better than it's being mine
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:我完全接受你的观点 Prof.: I completely accept your point.
我想你可以很容易地加上一个前提 I think you can easily add another premise in there
你可能 and you can say
"成功需要繁荣的经济 “prosperous economies are needed for success”
繁荣的经济需要刺激" Incentives are needed for a prosperous economies”
社会主义没有刺激 Socialism did not provide incentives,
所以社会主义不成功 therefore socialism was not a success, or something.
你明白我们很容易加上这个 so do you see we could have easily added that one on
是两个隐含的前提外显 and made it explicit two suppressed premises.
很好 Yep fair enough.
谁有不是这样的吗? Does anyone else have anything not quite this nope?
好 Okay good.
我们再看看这个 Let's do it again with this one.
因为许多新兴国家 Since many newly emerging nations
没有资本资源 do not have the capital resources necessary for
可持续发展必须的 他们要继续需要 sustained growth they will continue to need help
工业国家的帮助 from industrial nations.
你会发现如果你实践这个 You'll find that if you practice at this
这可能更简单 另外 it will get much much easier. And another thing is.
如果你识别了 If you haven't gotten it is to identify the sentences that
组成前提的句子 make up the premise if you can.
这里只有一句话 Here you only got one sentence and then
看看你们还能找到组成论点需要的吗 see what else you need to make an argument.
好 来试试 Okay, let's try some.
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:恩 Prof.: um hmm..
许多新兴国家胡继续需要帮助 so many newly emerging nations will continue to need help.
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:是的 这是论点里隐含的 Prof.: yes that's certainly implicit in that argument
你可以使它外显 so you can make it explicit if you like. Yep. Okay
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:好 你们要小心 Prof.: well no no now you need to be careful
因为当你们识别前提的时候 because when you are identifying a premise
不要把你相信的东西放进去 don't put in anything that you happen to believe.
你们做的是识别论点 What you're doing is identifying the argument for
不管谁写的 whoever it is that wrote this is making.
我们没有 Now we haven't yet we are not yet
评价论点 evaluating the argument,
我们能选择这些错的 we may decide it's wrong all sorts of ways
但是我们不能加东西 but what we don't do is add things on.
我们做的是坚持 All we are doing is sticking to the meaning of
他们本身要证明的 我们能改写但是不能 what they are arguing. We can paraphrase but we mustn't
改变意思 那太坏了 change the meaning. To change the meaning is really bad.
十分不好 Really really bad.
还有什么要试的吗? Okay is there anything else any one else wants to try?
这里有一个 This is, oh yes one more.
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:好 你们写 Prof.: Yep okay. When you're writing
隐含前提的时候 suppressed premises try not to add more than
如果论点需要最多加一个 我们来看看 what you need for the argument. Let's have a look.
看看我写下的 Let's see what I have put down then,
看看我们是不是还需要 let's see whether we still need that.
我写下许多新兴国家 So I put down many newly merging nations
没有资本资源 did not have capital resources ;
资本资源对可持续增长是必需的 capital resources are necessary for sustained growth;
如果一个新兴国家要可持续增长 if a newly emerging nation is to sustain its growth
它没有资本资源 and it does not have capital resources
他需要工业国家的帮助 it will need help from industrial nations,
结论是许多新型国家 and the conclusion is many newly emerging nations
需要工业国家的帮助 will need help from industrial nations.
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:是吗? Prof.: well is it?
如果你记得第一周 now if you remember in the first week
我们看了暗含和蕴含 we've looked at implication and entailment
谁记得 Does anyone remember the difference between
暗含和蕴含的区别? what an implication and entailment is?
如果忘了就算了 And don't mind if you don't
这是个很复杂的区别 it's a very sophisticated distinction
但是很重要 but it is important to realize.
如果我们的论述中有如果 If we got an if then statement
我们在主张先行词 假设条件句或者结果 are we asserting an antecedent, an if clause or the consequent,
然后从句 或者我们说如果P那么Q the then clause, or are we saying if P then Q.
我们没有宣称P或者Q 对吧? we're not actually claiming that P or Q are we?
我们说如果P那么Q 结论在如果P那么Q里? If we say if P then Q. so is there a conclusion in if P then Q?
结构中 does something of that structure
有没有前提和结论? have a premise and a conclusion?
结构能组成论点吗? A structure that would make it an argument?
学生:不能 Student: No
教授:不能 不是吗? Prof.: No it doesn't does it?
要有两个句子结合 what it has, has two sentences that are combined with
一个逻辑短语"如果 那么" a logical phrase “if, then”
实际上你不用宣称 actually you're not claiming anything
你没有回到有理由的东西 and you're not backing anything with reasons
所以这不是论点 而是暗含 so its not an argument it's an implication.
你们明白吗? Do you understand that?
学生:还有隐含的前提吗? Student: is there another suppressed premise in there
工业国家(无声) which is that industrial nations are… (inaudible)
教授:这是在 Prof.: that would be in the case of
把一个隐含前提放得太过 putting in a suppressed premise too far.
我认为 From my perspective and that's
那是因为我们没有细化他们需要的帮助 because we haven't specified the help they need here.
我们只是说 恩 We're just saying, um.
如果怎么样那么怎么样 Uh you've got if that then that and
这就是说 如果这为真 如果你喜欢 那么那样 that's saying the if is true, if you like, then that.
你不需要实际上拼出来 You don't need to actually spell out the that is.
我知道你们为什么想那样 I would see why you would want that,
但是我要说那对论点不必要 but I'd say its not necessary for the argument.
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:你能只说什么? Prof.: you could just say what?
学生:(无声) Student: Inaudible
教授:需要世界银行的帮助 Prof.: would need help from the world bank.
学生:世界银行不是一个工业国家 Student: …world bank is not the industrial nation.
学生2:我觉得这个问题 Student2: I think the issue is with the point rather than
是在论点的结构上 the structure of the argument.
教授:实际上我们做的是 Prof.: the fact is what we're doing is
识别论点 我们没有评价 identifying the argument we are not evaluating it yet.
你们看到区别了吗? Do you see the difference?
我们只是识别 然后评价 We are just identifying it then we evaluate it.
我们不用管内容 但是他是对的 Do we do have to let the content go. But he is quite right.
如果论点需要有另外的隐含前提 If there Is another suppressed premise there needed for
我们就要找出来 the argument then we need to bring it out.
但是我觉得这不是 But I don't think its one of them
学生:我会说前提3 Student: the third premise I would have told that
工业国家需要资本资源 the industrial nation need capital resources
因为这是他们能够为新兴国家提供帮助 because that would be the only way they can provide help
唯一的方式 for the newly emerging nations….
前提3会是一个工业国家 the third premise would have an industrial nation
会需要资本资源 would need a capital resources.
教授:这个论点说 Prof.: well is this argument saying
哪种帮助是需要的 what sort of help is in need.
我的意思是我同意这里有一个暗含 I mean I agree that there is an implication there
但是我不觉得 but I don't think its um
学生:听不清楚 Student: (inaudible)
教授:这可能是 Prof.: okay so, it could be that,
不是它需要帮助 我们要改成资本资源 instead of it will need help we change it to capital resources.
你们明白我的意思吗? Do you see what I mean?
那么它会知道许多新兴国家 So then it will read many newly merging nations
没有资本资源 did not have capital resources ;
资本资源对可持续发展是必需的 capital resources are necessary for sustained growth;
如果一个新兴国家要可持续发展 if a newly emerging nation is to sustain its growth
它没有资本资源 and it does not have capital resources
它就需要工业国家的资本资源 it will need capital resources from industrial nations.
你们明白吗? Do you see what I mean?
同样 我们会说结论 And in the same way we would say the conclusion
许多新兴国家 many newly emerging nations
会需要资本资源 will need capital resources from
你们明白前提 so you would be getting the premise you want in
你想通过去除不一致的术语 by removing inconsistent terms
而不是加上另一个前提 rather than adding in another premise.
学生:问题是我们在说 Student: the point is we are talking about a difference
资本资源的不同 in capital resources..
所以结论应该和资本资源有关 so the conclusion should be related to capital resources.
教授:但是我说 Prof.: but I am saying it is..
我告诉你们我们回到这里 I'll tell you what lets come back to this
我们看过的不一致的术语 once we've looked at inconsistent terms
因为我希望我能说服你们 because I hope by then I can convince that
这实际上是的 it is actually in there.
但是这里是一个很不一致的方式 But it is in there in a very inconsistent way.
但是记得提醒我回来 But do remind me to come back.
学生:还有另外暗含的前提吗? Student: is there another suppressed premise
在新兴国家的资源中 in the resource of emerging nation
和工业国家? is from industrial nations?
否则结论不紧随 otherwise the conclusion doesn't follow.
教授:呃 不是 因为结论是 Prof.: uh no because the conclusion is that
他们会需要帮助 别忘了前提可能会错 they will need help, don't forget the premise is maybe false.
没人说前提现在是对的 Nobody is saying the premise is true at the moment.
我们只是想识别前提 We are just wanting to identify the premise.
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:好 我们一会再说 Prof.: Well that we worry about later when,
我们现在没有评价论点 we're not evaluating the argument at the moment
我们只是分析 we are just analyzing it.
我们把说论点的写下来 we are putting down exactly what was said in the argument
或者把说的和论点中暗含的写下来 or what was said and what was implied in the argument.
学生:在论点中它说 Student: in the argument does it say why does
为什么新兴国下需要工业国家的帮助了吗? emerging nations need help from industrial nations?
教授:我想你把它换成了资本资源 Prof.: I think you change that to capital resources
这是说我们在论点中说的 it does say that aren't we saying in the argument
工业国家的帮助 the help in the industrial nation
给新兴国家的帮助是资本资源 is giving to the newly emerging nations is capital resources.
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:是的 但是这是为什么 Prof.: yes absolutely yep but that's why
当我们去除不一致术语的时候 when we get rounds to remove the inconsistent terms,
我们没有看到 which we haven't got around to it yet,
这是我们要外显其中的一件事 that's one of the things that we want to make explicit.
外显有不同的方式 So there are different ways to making thing explicit.
一种是加上隐含的前提 One is by adding suppressed premises.
另一种是去除不一致的术语 And another is by removing inconsistent terms.
我已将说过我们会回头看这个论点 I already promised we would come back to this argument
当我们完成的时候 我会确定我们明白 when we've done that. I'll make sure we're clear on that
学生:我会说用P和Q Student: I would you state that using P and Q
教授:我现在不会 Prof.: I wouldn't, not at the moment. I wouldn't.
好 你们做得很好 okay now you've done so well
我们要试试复杂的论点了 we are going to try the really complicated argument.
好 我们在剩下的时间里都会做这个 Okay, we'll do that for the rest of this session.
这是论点 Here is the argument.
在这节课结束的时候你们会分析论点 By the end of the session you will analyze this argument
看看它怎么运作的 and see how it works.
首先识别论点的结论 Okay firstly identify the conclusion of this argument.
好 谁没有? Okay right. Who hasn't had a go.
谁想说? Would you like to have a go?
学生:你应该被挠 Student: you deserve to get scratched.
教授:不是 我问那位女士 Prof.: Oops sorry I was asking that lady there.
学生:你应该被挠 Student: you deserve to get scratched.
教授:你应该被挠 Prof.: you deserve to get scratched.
还有一部分 There is a bit more to it than that.
这是论点的一部分 That is part of the conclusion
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:恩 Prof.: um
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:好 这不是如果你要去逗她 如果 Prof.: well it's not if you tickle her tummy, if you
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:如果 Prof.: if
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:好 其他人 Prof.: okay. Okay somebody else.
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:她不想她去逗她 Prof.: just she didn't want her to tickle her tummy.
不 错了 Um nope. Wrong.
学生:这是整个句子 Student: it's the whole sentence:
如果你认为你是个傻瓜 if you thought that you're an idiot…
教授:是的 这是整个句子 Prof.: absolutely. It's the whole sentence.
这实际上是个条件结论 Its actually a conditional conclusion.
如果小可怜想让你去逗她 If the poor thing did want you to tickle her tummy
那么你就应该被挠 then you deserve to get scratched.
这不是你自己应该被挠 So it's not that you deserve to get scratched on its own,
因为你应该被挠 because you only deserve to get scratched
如果她想让你去逗她 if she did want you to tickle her tummy.
明白我的意思吗? Do you see what I mean?
这整个都是有条件的结论 That the whole thing is a conditional conclusion.
你也说了 And you also had said something like
如果你要去逗她 你去除了 if you tickle her tummy, and you were leaving out
去除了她想让你去逗她 if she wanted you to tickle her tummy.
实际上这是很重要的 And actually that's very important.
在如果你要去逗她 There is a big difference between
和她想让你去逗她之间 if you tickle her tummy and
是非常不同的 she wanted you to tickle her tummy.
论点的目的 And the purpose of this argument,
这是很不同的 that's quite an important difference.
结论 我说这有个很好的指示词 And the conclusion, I said there was a nice large indicator
就在前面 这里 right in front of it. and here it is.
如果小可怜想让你去逗她 So if the poor thing did want you to tickle her tummy
你就应该被挠 这是结论 you deserve to get scratched. That's the conclusion. Okay?
都同意吗? Everyone happy with that?
你们明白实际上这是个条件句 Can you see that the fact that it's a conditional sentence
一个复杂句也可以是结论 a complex sentence doesn't stop it from being a conclusion.
因为结论是什么? because a conclusion is what?
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:是你要证明的宣称 Prof.: it's the claim for which you're arguing.
对 是你做出的论述 That's right. It's a statement that you're making
你用理由来支持 and you're backing it up with reasons.
好 下一步我们要做的是 Okay what's the next thing we do,
识别了结论? 我们识别了前提 having identified the conclusion? We identify the premises,
好 我识别论点的前提 okay. I identify the premise of that argument.
学生:如果你把结论放在中间 Student: if you put that conclusion in the middle
这成为理由了吗? Does it become a reason?
教授:恩 是的 Prof.: umm yes. Yes.
有时候论点中有次论点 Sometimes within arguments you get sub arguments.
但是不要担心 But don't worry about that.
把他当成前提 不是结论 Treat it as a premise not a conclusion.
好 我想我们明白了 Okay I think we're getting there.
我要结论我知道的 你们告诉我 I am going to reveal what I've got and you can tell me
你们知道的 前提1 what you've got. Okay, premise 1.
可能她不想让你去逗她 well perhaps she didn't want you to tickle her tummy.
如果她没意识到你要做什么 If she didn't realize that was what you were going to do.
我现在意识到我有点误导你们了 Now I have just realized I mislead you in something.
你们去除论点指示词值得表扬 I praised you for leaving out the argument indicators
但是我想让你们去除的唯一的论点指示词 but the only argument indicators I want you to leave out is
因为和因为等等 Since and because and so on.
恩 这个或者使的两个句子 Um this or here is making these two sentences
成为一个复杂句 你们应该留下那个 a complex sentence so you should leave that in.
所以你们能看到结构的前提 so the premise there you can see the structure,
P或Q 所以或者是一部分 P or Q. so the or is part of it
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:不 你们可以分开的是和 Prof.: no, the only one you can separate like that is and.
如果你有P和Q 那么两个分开的前提可以 If you have P and Q then two separate premises will do.
但是如果你有P或者Q But If you have P or Q,
你看到或者就很不同了 逻辑上不是吗? you see the or is rather different isn't it logically?
你们不能有一句话 如果我说 You can't just have one sentence-if I said-
这里是一种方式 okay here is a way of doing it we're taking –
如果我有一支钢笔 if I got a pen-yes.
好 我们向前进一点 Right, we're moving ahead little for
我要告诉你们的 what I am going to tell you
如果你们开始觉得迷惑 就不要听了 so if you start getting confused just stop your ears out.
当你们开始评价论点的时候 When we get to evaluate arguments,
我们做的是把条件设定 what we do is set out the conditions
在前提为真的情况下 under which premise is true.
那我们我可以把条件设定成 So we then can set out the conditions
他们都为真 for which they are all true together.
不要担心我们现在怎样做 Okay don't worry about how we do that at the moment
我们试着来做 just that's what we're trying to do.
如果我看P和Q 我说都为真 Now if I look at P and Q I can say this is true,
整个句子就为真 不是吗? this whole sentence is true isn't it?
如果在世界上中 P为真 Q为真 if there is one world where P is true and Q is true.
对吗 直觉上明白吗 Is that right? Do you see intuitively?
P和Q为什么为真? So what is it for P and Q to be true?
这是为什么P为真 Q也同样为真 Well its for P to be true and Q to be true in the same world.
或者同样的情况 Or in the same situation if you prefer.
我可以用一句话代表 So I can represent it in one line
把P和Q放在同一句话里 and put P and Q on the same line.
如果我说P或者Q 我不能那样做 不是吗? If I say P or Q, I can't do that can I ?
P或者Q是真的 P or Q is true just incase
学生:如果其中一个为真 Student: if one of them is true
教授:是 P或者Q为真 Prof.: yea, either P is true or Q is true
或者同时为真 我要写两句话 or sometimes both. So um. So I have to put two lines,
P一句 Q在另一句 不是吗? put P on one line and Q on the other wouldn't I?
为了说P或者Q 这是不同的词 in order to say P or Q. so they are different words,
不同的逻辑词 different logical words and do you see
你们看如果我把前提中的P和Q分开 if I separate the P and Q in one premise
这无所谓 it doesn't really matter,
但是如果我把P或者Q分开就有所谓了 whereas if I separate the P or Q it does matter.
每句话中只有一个 The I have only got one on each line.
我必须把它们放在一起 So I must keep them together.
实际上我应该把它们合在一起 In fact I should keep them all together just
因为现在你不知道 because at this moment you don't know the difference
和与或的区别 between and or and so on is.
所以任何复杂句都能把他们合在一起 So any complex sentence just keep them together.
谁有不同的? So does anyone have something different from that other
不是把两句分开 that just separating the two sentence.
实际上你们分开两句话 And actually you're separating the two sentences
因为我一开始误导了你们 because I mislead you in the beginning.
不要因为那个否定自己 So don't knock yourself for that.
学生:我只是想陈述我完整的迷惑 Student: I just want to state my complete confusion
因为我不能 over this because I can't,
我不理解为什么他们没有分开 I don't understand why they are not separate,
我理解如果有一种 I can understand if there was some sort of
一个对另一个的依赖性 dependence on one or the other
但是看起来没有逻辑联系 but there doesn't seem to be any logical link
教授:想想 我们这里做的 Prof.: well think about, what we're doing here,
你们记得当我们说 do you remember when we said
我们要坚持意思 we've got to keep the meaning.
不管我们怎么做 意思不能变 The meaning has got to be the same whatever else we do.
这个句子说要么这个为真 要么这个为真 This sentence is saying either this is true or this is true.
对吗?好 如果我们分开 Is that right? Okay so if we separate them.
我们就丢下了或者 So we have lost the or.
我们只是说这个为真和这个为真 We've just got this is true and this is true.
学生:但是这很好 她不想让你 Student: but that's fine she did not want you
去逗她无所谓 to tickle her doesn't matter
不管它是否意识到你要做什么 whether she realizes what you're doing or going to do.
她不想让你去逗她 She doesn't want you to tickle her.
但是他们仍然是独立的 But they still stand independently regardless
教授:他们是两个独立的句子 Prof.: they are two independent sentences
我完全同意 I completely agree.
这可能为真 她不想让你去逗她 It might be true she didn't want you to tickle her
这可能为真 她没意识到 and it might be true she didn't realize
你要去逗她 you were going to tickle her
但是句子说要么这个要么那个 but what the sentence says is either this or this
这是我们要做的 and that's what we're going to I mean –
如果论点的前提是我们 so the premise of the argument is that we start of
当要么这个要么这个开始的时候 when either this or this.
你们记得我们第一次用这个论点的时候吗? Do you remember first when we're doing the argument?
学生:我不理解 Student: I don't understand,
要么出太阳要么下雨 either it's sunny or it's rainy
我不理解它们分开 I can't understand one without the other
教授:好 看看P或者Q 对不起 Prof.: well look at P or Q. P I am sorry.
非P所以Q你们记得那个论点吗? Not P therefore Q. do you remember that argument?
学生:是的 Student: Yes
教授:P或者Q 非P所以Q Prof.: P or Q, not P therefore Q.
学生:我理解了 但是那不一样 Student: That I understand, but that's not the same here.
教授:好 为什么?现在我不理解你了 Prof.: Okay, why? Now I am not understanding you.
为什么不? Why not?
学生:因为这是个论述 Student: because there is a statement
她不想让你去逗她 where she doesn't want you to tickle her tummy now
如果是这样 不管她是否意识到 if that is the case, it doesn't matter whether she realizes
你是否想去逗她 whether you wanted to tickle her tummy or not,
她的反应是独立于她知道的 her reaction was independent of her knowing …
教授:但是为什么有那个问题? Prof.: But why is that a problem?
记得两个完全独立的句子 Remember the two sentences are completely independent
我们说要么出太阳要么下雨 of each other. We talked about it either it's sunny or rainy.
现在不应该说 Now that shouldn't give-
我们可以说要么出太阳要么刮风 we could say either its sunny or windy
学生:但是你不能说 Student: but you can't say,
如果出太阳了 那么就不能有风 if it's sunny then it can't be windy.
教授:但是我们没说 Prof.: But we haven't said that.
如果那么就与或者完全不同了 If then is completely different from or.
如果那么是一个不同的逻辑宣称 If then is a different logical claim.
学生:这是什么 我不理解这个类型 Student: so what is this again. I don't understand the type..
教授:不 我肯定你不是唯一一个 Prof.: no no I'm sure you're not the only person
弄混了的 who is confused by this.
这里说的都是要么这个要么这个为真 All that is being said here is that either is true or this is true
学生:句子下一点多余的是什么? Student: and what's the next bit of the sentence
教授:这不是真的 所以这肯定是 Prof.: and this isn't true therefore this must be.
听逻辑的 要么这个要么这个 对不起 So listen to the logic again. Either this or this. Sorry.
要么这个要么那个 不是这个所以那个 Ether this or That. Not this therefore that.
这个和那个是什么无所谓 And it doesn't matter what this or that is.
你们明白我的意思吗? Do you see what I mean?
学生:是的 Student: yes
教授:我们说 Prof.: so here we're saying
学生:"她不想让你去逗她 Student: “ She didn't want you to tickle her
或者她没意识到你要做什么 or she didn't realize what you were going to do.
她不想让你去逗她所以她没有 She didn't want you to tickle her therefore she didn't…
明白? Can you see?
教授:等等 什么都没有紧随它 Prof.: hang on. Nothing follows from this.
这只是一个前提 There is only one premise.
我们要整个论点 We've got to get the whole argument
在紧随的东西之前 before anything follow.
学生:你没有那样用它 Student: and you don't have to use it that way?
教授:不 我只是用它来解释或者 Prof.: no I was just using that to illustrate the word or.
或者可以在两个独立的句子之间 Or can stand between two independent senetences.
学生:好 Student: okay
教授:不管句子的内容 Prof.: doesn't matter what the sentences are
是怎样不相关 无所谓 their content is irrelevant.
学生:好 Student: okay
教授:如果你仍然不明白 课后来找我 Prof.: if you still don't understand, see me after.
谁还不明白? Is anyone else still bothered by that.
如果你想让我再讲一遍就举手 Put your hand up if you want me to go over that again.
好 如果还是不明白 课后来找我 Okay, see me after if you still haven't got it. Okay.
谁还有关于前提1 Does anyone else have anything else for premise one
除了把它们分开之外的问题吗?没有 好 than this other than having dividing the two up. Nope, okay?
好 前提2 如果她没意识到 Good. Premise 2. If she didn't realize
那么你很显然就用错误的方式 then you obviously went about it the wrong way,
谁有不同的?没有? does anyone have something different for that? No?
前提3:这种情况下你就应该被挠 Premise 3: in that case you deserved to get scratched
除非你确实认为他是一个感觉灵敏的猫 unless you really thought she was such a perceptive cat
她不理解毛线团会滚动 that she'd understand woof woof meant roll over.
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:再说一遍 Prof.: sorry say that again
学生:为什么你不说 Student: why can't you say
"除非她是一个感觉灵敏的猫 “unless she was such a perceptive cat
她不会理解毛线团会滚动" she wouldn't understand woof woof meant roll over.”
教授:记住我们现在不是 Prof.: well remember we are not
评论论点 evaluating the argument at this point
你们试图去抓住 what you're doing is trying to capture
每个前提的意思 如果你去除 the meaning of each premise. If you left out
"那样你就应该被挠除非" “in that case you deserved to get scratched unless”
你只有"除非你确实认为她是 so you just have “unless you really thought she was
一个感觉灵敏的猫" such a perceptive cat that..”
这实际上不是个句子 是吗? that's actually not even a sentence is it?
学生:前提必须是句子吗? Student: it has to be a sentence to be a premise?
教授:是的 前提必须是句子 Prof.: in order to be a premise it has to be a sentence
可能是复杂句 但必须是句子 it might be a complex sentence but it has to be a sentence.
是的 谁有不同的?没有 很好 Yep yep. Anyone have anything different there? Nope good.
你们做得很好 You're doing very well.
前提4:如果你认为你是个傻瓜 Premise 4: if you thought that you're an idiot.
但是你不是傻瓜 只是有点扭 But you're not an idiot you're just twisted.
谁用不同的? Anyone have anything different for that?
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:如果你想 对不起 Prof.: if you thought that-you, sorry.
你有什么? What did you have?
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:我实际上很同情你把那个去除了 Prof.: I actually sympathize with you having left that out.
我们马上看看为什么 And you'll see why in a minute.
但是你在这一点上不应该去除 But you shouldn't have left it out at this point
因为这实际上在那 你应该放进去 because it is actually in there. So you should put it in.
你想说什么? so what were you going to say?
学生:我想说 Student: I was going to say
你不应该放进去 you shouldn't have actually put it.
我想这是不相关的 I thought it was irrelevancy.
教授:现在我们不去除不相关性 Prof.: at the moment we are not removing irrelevancies
但是可能当我们做的时候会去除 but perhaps when we do we'll take this out.
但是现在我们先留着 But in the moment we will leave it in.
但是你的直觉它是不相关的是对的 but your intuition that it is irrelevant is a good one.
我们一会再看 As you'll see in a minute.
这是个设定成逻辑的课本形式的论点 Okay so there is the argument set out logic book style
实际上现在就是 as it's actually stand in the moment.
但是当然我们没完成 But of course we haven't finished
因为我们要去除一些多余的东西 because we have to remove all sort of bits and pieces.
在你们步骤的列表上 设定成逻辑的课本形式 So on your list of steps to set out arguments logic book style
第三步是什么? what's the third step?
我们识别了前提和结论 We identified the premises and the conclusion
下一步是什么? what do we do next?
学生:加上隐含的前提 Student: add suppressed premises
教授:对 实际上我会告诉你们 Prof.: right, actually I'll tell you now
没有任何隐含前提 there aren't any suppressed premises
我们不用担心 so we don't have to worry about that here.
下一步是什么? What's the next step?
学生:去除不相关性 Student: remove irrelevancies
教授:去除不相关性 Prof.: remove irrelevancies.
好 我们看看怎样做 Okay so, let me see how we've done that.
好 我们要做的事 Okay so what we have to do is take
把每个前提分开 each premise separately.
分开识别前提和结论 The nice thing about identifying
是非常好的 the premises and conclusion separately
我们能分开对待 is we can treat each one separately now,
不用同时做所有的 we don't have to do all at the same time and that helps us.
我们看看前提1 So let's look at premise one and
去除其中的不相关性 lets remove the irrelevancies in premise one.
就把没有构成意义有关的词去除 Just get rid of any word that are not contributing to
这些事很小 what that means. That are just bits of fluff if you like.
学生:好 Student: well
教授:好 对 这可以去除 不是吗? Prof.: Well yes that's right. That can go can't it?
这没关系 还有呢? that doesn't do anything. What else? Anything else?
学生:可能 Student: perhaps
教授:可能 可能也要去除 好 Prof.: Perhaps, perhaps can go as well. Yep okay.
还有一个词 不是所有的 There is one more word I can get rid of actually. Not all.
学生:肚子 Student: tummy
教授:肚子 谁说的? Prof.: Tummy. Who said tummy?
是的 你可以去除肚子 不是吗? Yep. You can get rid of tummy can't you?
前提中她不想让你去逗她 So the premise is she didn't want you to tickle her
或者她没意识到你要做什么 or she didn't realize that was what you were going to do.
好 这些是绿色的 绿色比红色简单不是吗? So here we are. They are green. Isn't green easier than red?
学生:是的 Student: yes
教授:如果去除了好 可能 Prof.: so if we get rid of well, perhaps,
和肚子 留下的是她不想让你去逗她 and tummy we've got she didn't want you to tickle her
或者她没意识到你要做什么 or she didn't realize that was what you were going to do.
好? 我们看看前提2 Okay? Let's try premise 2. What have you got.
学生:那么和显然 Student: then and obviously
教授:那么和显然 Prof.: then and obviously.
如果她没意识到那么 If she didn't realize then
学生:留下那么 Student: leave the then in
教授:好留下那么 显然可以去除 不是吗? Prof.: okay leave the then in. the obviously can go can't it?
显然多余了 the obviously is a bit,
不管是不是显然或者是不是完全不相关 whether it's obvious or not is completely irrelevant.
这可能很显然 但是无所谓 It might not have been obvious it wouldn't really matter
不是吗? 好 我们去除显然 would it? okay so we take out the obvious.
前提3 Okay next premise3.
学生:我会去处确实 Student: I would take out only really
教授:你只会把确实去除 Prof.: you would take out only really.
除非你想了 你可以去除确实 Unless you really thought. You can certainly take out really.
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:不 不是这样 为什么? Prof.: uhh no not in that case. Why not in that case?
谁能 Can anyone…
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:是的 它说如果那为真 Prof.: certainly it says if that is true
那么这就很重要了 then something so in that case is really very important.
我会展示我要去除什么 是很多 I'll show you what I would take out. I would take out a lot.
是的 你应该被挠 Yep. In that case you deserved to get scratched.
因为实际上当你看前提4时 Because actually when you look at the forth premise,
我也会去除完全 which I would also take out completely,
如果你想你是个傻瓜 if you thought that you're an idiot.
但是你不是傻瓜 就是有点扭 But you're not an idiot you're just twisted.
这只是很小的人身攻击 This is just a little insult that somebody is putting into
人们把它放到论点里在家说说 不是吗? the argument in order to ram at home, isn't it?
好 你们是傻瓜 你们不能相信 okay common you idiot, you cannot not believe this.
意味着什么? Which means what?
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:好 这只意味着这个 是吗? Prof.: well it means just this doesn't it?
如果我说P 你们是傻瓜你不相信 if I say P, you're an idiot of you don't believe
我要说的是 what am I saying just on ..
学生:你们是傻瓜 Student: that you're an idiot
教授:是的我还会说你们是傻瓜 Prof.: yes I am also saying you're an idiot
如果我这样说的话 if I put it that way don't I ?
前提4可以和前提3完全一样 so premise four can go completely and premise three.
看看我们完全回到了整个论点 To see that lets go back completely to the whole argument.
我来读一下 So let me read it out to you.
有时候如果你对论点有问题 Sometimes its much easier if you ever having trouble with
大声读出来会变得容易 an argument try reading out aloud.
你的语音语调会帮助你 The tone put you on it will give you a much better idea
理解那个论点的逻辑 on where you're going in logic.
我们大声读一下 Lets read it out loud.
可能她不想让你去逗她 Well perhaps she didn't want you to tickle her tummy or
或者她没意识到你要做什么 she didn't realize that's what you were going to do.
如果她没意识到 那么你很明显 If she didn't realize then you obviously
用错误的方式去逗她 went about it the wrong way.
这样你就应该被挠 In that case you deserved to get scratched
除非你认为她是一个感觉灵敏的猫 unless you really thought she was such a perceptive cat
她理解毛线团f意味着滚动 that she'd understand woof woof meant roll over.
如果你认为她是个傻瓜 If you thought that you're an idiot.
但是你不是傻瓜 你只是有点扭 But you're not an idiot you're just twisted.
如果小可怜想让你去逗她 So if the poor think did want you to tickle her tummy
你就应该被挠 明白了? you deserve to get scratched. You see?
这实际上互相抵消 This actually cancels each other out.
因为是说 我们来看看结构 Because you are saying –let's look at the structure of it.
P除非Q Q是你确实认为 P unless Q. Q is : you really thought
她是一个感觉灵敏的猫 she was such a perceptive cat that
她不理解毛线团意味着滚动 she'd understand woof woof meant roll over.
好 如果你想 如果Q那么你是个傻瓜 Okay um. If you thought so, if Q then you're an idiot.
如果Q那么R 但是非R If Q then R. um but not R.
你就扭了 加上了人身攻击 P除非Q and your just twisted is an insult added on. P unless Q.
如果Q那么R 但是非R if Q then R. but Not R.
你们明白这些怎样互相抵消吗? P除非Q Can you see how that all cancels each other out? P unless Q.
如果Q那么R 非R 这都是 if Q then R. Not R. so it all just becomes.
别担心我这里的字母 Again don't worry about the letters I put in here.
自己用自己的 Do it on your own.
试着读出来 看什么重要 Try reading it out and see what really count.
好 这是有不相关性的论点 Okay so, here's the argument with the irrelevancies.
还有 结论 Oh one more thing, the conclusion.
我刚把肚子去除了 I've just taken out the tummy again
因为我们在前提1中就去除了 because we took out the tummy in the first premise
所以结论也要这样 so do it again with the conclusion.
这里是去除了不相关性的论点 So here's the argument when the irrelevance removed.
我希望你们明白 如果他简单了一些的话 And I hope you see if looks much simpler.
更容易评价 Much easier to evaluate.
她不想让你去逗她 she didn't want you to tickle her
或者她没意识到你要做什么 or she didn't realize that's what you were going to do.
如果她没意识到 那么你就用错误的方式去逗她 If she didn't realize then you went about it the wrong way.
这种情况下你就应该被挠 In that case you deserved to get scratched.
如果小可怜想让你去逗她 So if the poor think did want you to tickle her
你就应该被挠 you deserve to get scratched.
但是我们继续下一步 问题 But let's continue what's the next step. Sorry question first.
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:这可能是结论 Prof.: it could be a conclusion.
但是别忘了什么都有可能是结论 But don't forget anything can be a conclusion.
别忘了结论可能是 Don't forget a conclusion is anything that plays a role
在论点中有角色的 in an argument and in this argument,
在这个论点中没有扮演角色 this is not playing a role in the conclusion.
这可能在次结论中扮演角色 This may play a role in the sub conclusion,
但是这是结论 but this is the conclusion.
记住结论是 So remember that the conclusion is that
你要证明的 这是结论 for which you're arguing. And that's the conclusion.
但是你是对的 它能做结论 But you're right, that can play a role in conclusion.
好 下一步? Okay what's the next step?
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:不 去除不一致的术语和交叉参考 Prof.: No. Removing inconsistent terms and cross references.
好 不一直的术语 Okay inconsistent terms,
不一致的术语是什么? what do I mean by inconsistent terms?
如果我们回到论点 我们之前看的 If we go back to that argument we were looking at earlier.
好 这个 你们明白人们怎样想 Okay this one. Do you see how people wanted to
有另一个前提 have another premise in there,
有关工业国家 something about industrial nations
需要给新兴国家资本资源 need to give emerging nations capital resources
或者之类的 如果我们看看这个 or whatever it was. If we look around this one
"如果一个新兴国家要可持续发展 “if a newly emerging nation sustain growth,
它没有资本资源 and it does not have capital resources
它会需要工业国家的帮助 it will need help from industrial nations.
这是需要帮助 what does this, it need help,
这里的帮助是暗含的 what's the help that is being implied here.
学生:资本资源 Student: capital resources
教授:资本资源 Prof.: capital resources,
我们用两个不同的术语说资本资源 so we are using two different terms for capital resources
不是吗?我们用资本资源 aren't we? Here we're using capital resources,
我们用帮助 here we're just using help,
实际上是一回事 不是吗? but actually they mean the same thing don't they?
这是论点的方式 So they way this argument,
我们能揭露这个论点 更小心地说 we can reveal this argument much more carefully saying
"许多新兴国家 “many newly emerging nations
没有资本资源 do not have capital resources.
资本资源对可持续发展是必需的 Capital resources are necessary to sustain growth
如果一个新兴国家要可持续发展 if a newly emerging nation is to sustain its growth
它没有资本资源 it does not have capital resources it will
它就需要工业国家的资本资源 need capital resources from industrial nation.
许多新兴国家 Many newly emerging
学生:你能用 Student: can you use….
教授:用什么? Prof.: can you use what sorry?
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:不会在这里用 Prof.: well couldn't use then and there.
许多新兴国家会需要 you mean capital resources. Okay I am sorry.
你的意思是资本资源 对不起 Many newly emerging nation will need –oh them-
你的目标是 No well what your aiming to do is
回顾论点的结构 review the structure of the argument
你通过去除许多 and you do that by getting rid of as many things
尽力分散你经历的论点结构来做到 that are distracting you from the structure of the argument
其中一件分散精力的事 as you can. One of the things that are distracting you here is
是两个不同的词或短语 that two different words or phrases are being used for
用来说同一件事 你改变他们 the same thing. so what you do is change them
所以你在整个论点中用同样的词 so you're using the same word throughout the argument.
你能用的是许多新兴国家没有帮助 What you could use many newly emerging nations
帮助对可持续发展是必需的 do not have help. Help are necessary to sustain growth.
我的意思是这说明我们不应该用帮助 I mean this suggests we shouldn't use help
好 我们用资本资源代替 okay so let's use capital resources instead them is
这个你们想去除的代词 a pronoun that on the whole you're trying to get rid of,
我不会用它 但是我知道你们为什么想用 I wouldn't use that but I can see why you wanted to.
好 你们是说我的意思 Okay so you do know what I mean
当我说你们要去除不一致的术语然后? when I say you have to remove inconsistent terms then?
我说服你们了吗? Have I convinced you?
学生:我想我是对的 Student: I think I was right
教授:哪里对? Prof.: you were right about what?
学生:(不能理解) Student: not understandable
教授:这个应该是资本资源?对 Prof.: so that should be capital resources? Yes.
你这个对? You were right about that?
但我希望我是对的 那不是隐含前提 But I hope I was right that that wasn't a suppressed premise.
这是个需要被去除的不一致的术语 It's a matter of an inconsistent term needing to be removed,
或者需要变得一致的 or needing to be made consistent.
我们来试试这个 So let's try it with this,
我们现在要看的论点 the argument we are going to be looking at now.
我忘了我们讲到哪张演示文稿了 And now I have forgotten which slide we were on.
哦 我解释了不一致的术语 Oh I was just explaining what inconsistent terms are.
这是个不一致的术语 Okay that's what an inconsistent term is.
交叉参考呢? What about a cross reference? If we got
如果我说"Marianne星期五经常穿牛仔裤 “Marianne always wears jeans on Friday,
她现在穿着牛仔裤 我们有的是 she is wearing jeans. What have we got there that we could,
我闷闷能 这像个不连贯的术语 its like an inconsistent term.
学生:牛仔裤 Student: the jeans
教授:不是牛仔裤 而是她 Prof.: not the jeans but the she,
因为她指代Marianne because she is referring to Marianne.
要么都是 这可能好些 either make both she-that might be fine.
但是这可能在论点其他地方 But it might fall down elsewhere in the argument
或者都是Marianne or make both Marianne.
所以去除她能使你指的Marianne更清晰 so remove the she and make it explicit that
我们在前提中试试 you mean Marianne. So let's try that in this premise.
我给你们个提示 So I am just going to hint here.
我们把她拿掉 We are going to leave she in here
因为整个论点里没有她 because throughout the argument it's she isn't it?
我们从没有把她说成一个猫的名字 we're never introduced to the cat's name
我们不知道她的名字 we don't know what her name is,
也不知道她什么时候指猫 nor was she referred to the cat at any point.
或者之类的东西 Or anything like that.
这是个不一致的术语 So this isn't an inconsistent term
这一直是一致的 it is consistent throughout
即使这是种你要去除的东西 even if it's the sort of the thing you would be removing.
她不想让你去逗她 So she didn't want you to tickle her,
或者她没意识到你要做什么 or she didn't realize that was what you were going to do.
谁看到你们想 举手 Does anyone see anything you want to-put up your hand
如果你看到你想要去除的 if you see something you would like to remove.
她不想让你去逗她 She didn't want you to tickle her,
或者她没意识到你只是去逗她 or she didn't realize that you were going to tickle her
这是你要为了你要去逗她 that's what you were going to do stands in
而站的立场 不是吗? for you were going to tickle her. Isn't it?
我们没有改变意思 we are not changing the meaning by
使这两个术语一致 making those two terms consistent
我们只是使他们更明晰 we are just making something explicit
即那些原文中不明晰的 that was left in the original as implicit.
这里:她不想让你去逗她 And here it is: She didn't want you to tickle her,
或者她没意识到你只是去逗她 or she didn't realize that you were going to tickle her.
我把那个去除了 但是不要紧 I left the that out, but that doesn't matter.
谁有问题?没有? Okay, anyone have any problems with that? Okay no?
我们继续前提二是什么? let's move on. What about premise two?
如果她没意识到你要用错误的方式去逗她 If she didn't realize then you went about it the wrong way.
很正确 开始很正确 Very nifty right the first bit was right.
如果你没意识到你要去逗她 If you didn't realize you were going to tickle her.
你看到你要加这个介词 因为如果她没意识到 You see you need to add this in because if she didn't realize,
不是一句话 isn't actually a sentence is it until you
除非你加上你要去逗她 add you were going to tickle her.
加上介词就完整了 So you complete that sentence by adding that in.
第二部分呢? so what about the second half?
谁知道? Anyone have any ideas here?
学生:那么你就用错误的方式去逗她 Student: then you would tickle her in the wrong way.
教授:对 那么你用错误的方式去逗她 Prof.: yes then would tickle her in the wrong way.
之类的 越简单越好 Yes something like that. Try to keep it simple as possible.
你们试着去除复杂性 All you're doing it trying to get rid of the complication.
你们使它越简单越好 You're trying to making it as simple as possible so as to
揭露论点的结构 reveal the structure of the argument and you do that
通过去除迷惑你们的东西 by getting rid of all the things that are just confusing you.
如果她没意识到你要去逗她 So if she didn't realize you were going to tickle her
那么你就用错误的方式去逗她 then you were going to tickle her in the wrong way. Okay?
有问题吗?没有 好 Anyone any questions about that one? No good?
前提3 在这里 Premise three. In that case, refers back to
指前面的前提 不是吗? the previous premise doesn't it?
它说如果你要用错误的方式去逗她 it says If you were going to tickle her in the wrong way,
你就应该被挠 you deserve to get scratched.
这是两个分开的句子 不是吗? They are two quite separate sentences aren't there?
你们用错误的方式去逗她 You were going to tickle her the wrong way
她没有意识到你要去逗她 and she didn't realize you were going to tickle her.
现在是不同的句子 now they are different sentences
你不能解释 you mustn't complaint them.
因为它们对论点很重要 Because they matter to the argument, very much so.
还有问题吗? Okay any other questions about premise three?
我们继续 结论呢? Okay let's move on. What about the conclusion?
很简单不是吗? 如果她想让你去逗她 Its easy isn't it? if she did want you to ticker her
你就应该被挠 you deserve to get scratched.
我们把这个拿走换成她 So we take out the poor thing and put in she.
有问题? Okay question?
学生:对不起 论点不是 Student: yea sorry, does the conclusion not have to
要作为有意义的句子出现吗? stand as a sentence that makes sense in its own line.
我们从开始看 Let's start from the very beginning.
如果她想让你去逗她 If she did want you to tickle her
那么你就应该被挠 then you deserve to get scratched,
这没意义 it doesn't make any sense.
教授:是的 Prof.: yes it does
学生:那告诉你 Student: well is that telling you.
她想让你去逗她 She wanted you to tickle her
你就应该被挠 so you deserve to get scratched,
这没有意义 that doesn't make any sense.
教授:如果可怜的猫让你去逗她 Prof.: if the poor cat wanted you to tickle her- oh I see
如果她想让你去逗她 if she wanted you to tickle her
学生:你就应该被挠 不是吗? Prof.: okay I see where you're going..it is a sentence.
教授:我明白了 这是一句话 Student: you deserve to get scratched isn't…
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:好 我要告诉你在做什么吗? Prof.: okay shall I tell you what you're doing?
我完全同情你所做的 And I completely sympathize with what you're doing.
而且你不是唯一的 And what's more is that you're not the only person
你可能是唯一有勇气 who is doing it. you're probably the only person that
来问我的 has got courage to question me on it.
你要做的是试图放进逻辑 what you're trying to do, is trying to put the logic in here
试图使它紧随 you're trying to make it all follow
所以作为论点有意义 so it makes sense as an argument.
你应该做的是试图识别 And what you should be doing is trying to identify
我想你要放进去的是这个 what is said here. What you want to put in is this I think.
如果你想她让你去逗她 So if you did want you to tickle her
你就用错误的方式 and you went about it in the wrong way,
或者之类的 那么你就应该被挠 or something like that, then you deserve to get scratched.
这对吗? Is that right?
学生:因为结论 Student: because the conclusion..
与前提之间的联系有缺失 there is a missing link to the premises somewhere.
教授:因为结论的 你错了 Prof.: but the conclusion.. uh you're wrong
学生:对 Student: okay
教授:这就是我现在想说的 你错了 Prof.: that's all I'll say right now that you're wrong.
你们这周应该看看这个论点 What you should do is have a look at the argument
如果你仍然那样想 over the week and if you're still thinking that then,
如果下周还是不明白 我再给你们讲 and if you still don't see what I am saying then,
下周来找我 我给你们讲 come and see me next week and I will explain again.
这能说服你们 我开始揭露形式化它的结构了 This will convince you. I am going to reveal the structure
如果按不能说服你 没有什么能了 formalizing it and if that doesn't convince you nothing will.
好 我们用P Q来代表 Okay. We are going to put into Ps and Q's
这能揭露你们 and it will be a revelation to you
怎样把PQ放置能够更有道理 how putting it into P's and Q's will make much more sense.
我们这样做来 so what we've got to do it identify
识别论点的每个组成句子 each constituent of the sentences of the argument
都用一个字母表示 我有 and assign it a sentence letter. Okay have I gone-
我没做 好 来看看前提1 okay I haven't done this. Okay let's look at premise one.
我们要识别 we've got to indentify the constituent sentences of
那个前提的组成句子 然后用字母表示 that premise and assigning it a letter.
看看前提1 So just looking at premise one
哪些是组成的句子 第一个是什么? what are the constituent sentences, what's the first one?
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:她不想让你去逗她 Prof.: she didn't want you to tickle her.
另一个呢? Okay and the other one?
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:她没意识到你只是去逗她 Prof.: she didn't realize you were only going to tickle her.
这里我们有两句话 Okay here are two sentences,
我们用两个字母表示 lets provide them with sentence letters.
你们喜欢那些 I'd ask you which one you wanted
但是我想让你们选一个 你可以选P或者Q but I want you to choose one. You can choose either P or Q.
学生:P Student: P
教授:这个是P 好 下一个呢 Prof.: P for this one. Good what about the next one?
学生:Q Student: Q
教授:Q 好 这个选择不错 Prof.: Q, well done. Good choices I have to say.
不管什么时候你用P 这意味着那句话 Whenever we use the letter P, that means that sentence.
这代表那句话 So that's standing in for that sentence whenever
不管什么时候我们用Q we use the letter Q that stands in for that sentence
这很简单 so it's dead simple
这些句子没有什么奇妙 nothing magical about these sentences at all.
我们用大写字母代表这部分的原因 And the reason we use capital letters for this part
只是惯例 of the alphabet that's just conventional.
如果用F G 我们一般 If we use the letters F G, we tend to use that
用那个代表语言的其他部分 for other parts of the language.
如果我们用小写字母 像a b c and if we use lower case letters like a b c
这是代表语言的另一部分 that's for another part of the language.
这里有一个惯例 So there is a convention for which
用来代表语言中句子的字母 letters to use for what sentence in the language.
这就是为什么我想让你们用这里的字母 So that's why I wanted you to use letters from here.
好 前提一有两个一致的句子 Okay so premise one has two constituent sentences,
她不想让你去逗她 she didn't want you to tickle her,
她没意识到你只是去逗她 she didn't realize you were only going to tickle her
我们把他们标为P和Q 所以前提二 we've labeled them P and Q. so Premise two,
组成这个的句子是什么? what are the constituent sentences for this one?
第一个是什么? What's the first one?
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:她没意识到你只是去逗她 Prof.: she didn't realize you were only going to tickle her.
但是我们知道了 不是吗? But we've got that already haven't we?
我们不需要写下来 So we don't need to put that down.
另一个呢? What about the other one?
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:你用错误的方式去逗她 好 Prof.: You were going to tickle her the wrong way. Ok.
你用错误的方式去逗她 You were going to tickle her in the wrong way.
我们与要一个句子的字母 应该是哪个呢? We need a sentence letter, what should we have?
学生:R Student: R
教授:好 很好 你们有想法了 Prof.: oh ok good. Well done. you've got the idea here.
你们可以很容易地形式化了 好 You can formalize very easily. Okay.
前提二不好 前提三呢? That's premise two isn't it good. Premise three?
学生:你用错误的方式去逗她 Student: You were going to tickle her the wrong way
教授:你用错误的方式去逗她 这还是R Prof.: You were going to tickle her the wrong way, that's R again.
教授:你应该被挠 很好 Prof.: You deserve to get scratched. That's good. Okay.
你应该被挠 我们应该叫它什么? You deserve to get scratched. What should we call that?
学生:S Student: S
教授:S 很好 结论是 Prof.: S, good. Okay and conclusion:
如果她想让你去逗她 so if she did want you to tickle her-
好这一对很有意思 okay so that's interesting in that pair is said
她不想让你去逗她 好 现在我们 Student: Now that wouldn't make sense
学生:现在这没意义了 she didn't want you to tickle her. Okay now do we…shhh
教授:我一会会把她推出屋子 Prof.: I am going to put her outside the room in a minute.
这个问题很好 很重要 It's very good that you question things, its very important.
我们不需要另一句了 No we won't need another sentence.
我们能用什么代替呢? Encase what can we use instead?
学生:非P Student: Not P
教授:非P 不能吗? Prof.: Not P. can't we?
你不需要P 那么非P You certainly don't need P and then Not P.
你有了P 和逻辑词非 you've got that P and the logical word Not.
如果她不想让你去逗她 So if she didn't want you to tickle her
你就应该被挠 我们还需要什么吗? you deserve to get scratched do we need anything else?
学生:这就够啦 Student: that's all
教授:这就够了 Prof.: That's all ready.
这里我们有了构成论点 So here we've got all the sentences that
所有的句子 make up the argument.
所有的句子构成了论点 All the sentences that constitute the argument.
现在我想谁能帮我拿一下这个 Okay now I need somebody to hold this please.
谁过来帮我拿一下 Somebody come up and hold this for me please.
好 我们解释一下 Okay there we have an interpretation.
这就是我们说的解释 That's what that's called and interpretation.
前提一 什么形式 Now premise one, what's the form of that.
这是个逻辑词 There is a logical word that's
它包含两个句子 holding together two sentences.
什么是句子 什么是逻辑词? What are the sentences and what are the logical words.
学生:P或者Q Student: P or Q
教授:P或者Q 这是前提一 不是吗?前提二呢? Prof.: P or Q, that's premise one isn't it? what's premise two?
学生:如果Q 所以S Student: If Q therefore S
教授:那是Q吗?好 她没有意识到 Prof.: Is it Q? okay she didn't realize.
如果Q 那么 不是所以 If Q then, not therefore.
你把暗含和蕴含搞混了 You're confusing implication and entailment,
不管是谁 如果Q那么S是什么? whoever that was. If Q then S was it?
学生:R Student: R
教授:R 好 那么第三个前提 Prof.: R, okay. Then the third premise:
如果你用错误的方式去逗她 if you tickle her in the wrong way
那么你就应该被挠 then you deserve to get scratched.
如果R 那么S 结论是什么? If R then S and the conclusion?
学生:非P (无声) Prof.: If not P then not
教授:如果非P 那么非 Student: not P …inaudible
学生:非 Student: Not
教授:哪里有非 哪里? Prof.: Where is the not, where is the not?
学生:因为它是错的 Student: That's because it's wrong.
教授:它没错 你一会也该出去了! Prof.: It's not wrong. You'll be outside too in a minute!
学生:声音太小 Student: inaudible
教授:不 没有非 我没写 Prof.: no there was no not. No I am not putting the not.
等等 我在P之前写个非 Hang on, I am putting the not in front of the P
因为P是她不想让你们去逗她 because P was she didn't want you to tickle her
这里的非是如果她想让你们去逗她 好 and not here is that if she did want you to tickle her. Okay.
但是这里说你们应该被挠 不是吗? But this says you deserve to get scratched doesn't it?
这里说你们应该被挠 and this says you deserve to get scratched.
这里不需要有非 There is no need to put a not in here.
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:我说非P 不是说非S 不是吗? Prof.: I am saying not P but I am not saying not S am I?
学生:如果你想做错事 Student: if you want to make something wrong,
你要把一个负号放在两个论点之前 you have to put a minus in front of both premise
教授:不 不用!你要放的是 Prof.: no you don't! no what you put actually is .
如果非P 那么S If not P then S, oops.
好 只有P才可以否定 不是S Okay only the P that is being negated not the S.
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:好 你把我弄糊涂了 Prof.: okay you are getting me confused.
我们还有四分钟的时间 好 We've got 4 minutes lets finish. Okay that's fine.
我们可能一会就需要它 Actually we might need that in a minute so stay there.
这里有P Q R S 这是前提1 So there's P Q R S. and there's premise one.
你可以这样做 但这是对的 你们做到了 You could do it like this. But it's alright. You've done it.
这是整个论点 这是你们有的 so there's the whole argument. That's what you have there,
这是你们做到的 that's exactly what you got there. So oops.
这里我应该写一个非吧 不是吗? I should have put a not there shouldn't I ?
但是我没哟 但是这是我的错误 but I haven't but that's my mistake okay?
这里只有一个非 There is only a not there.
她不想让你们去逗她 或者她没意识到 She didn't want you to tickle her or she didn't realize
你会去逗她 you were going to tickle her.
好 这是很直接的二选一 对吗? Okay that's a straightforward either or. Isn't it?
要么这样要么那样 Either this is the case or that's the case.
那么这就是说如果她没意识到 Then this says if she didn't realize
你会去逗她 you were going to tickle her
那么你就会用错误的方式逗她 then you were going to tickle her in the wrong way.
很闲人就像有些事发生了 她挠了你 Obviously like something happened and she scratched you.
所以有人说如果你们意识到 so somebody said if you hadn't realized
你会去逗她 you were going to tickle her
那么你就会用错误的方式逗她 then you were going to tickle her in the wrong way.
所以你不会很温柔地推 So you didn't go about gently puss
而是用你的手推她肚子 you shoved your hands into her tummy
这意味着如果她意识到了 the implication is that if she had realized
那么你就没有被挠 对吗? then you wouldn't have got scratched. Is that right?
学生:对 Student: yes
教授:这就是这里的意思 Prof.: that's the implication there,
如果她意识到了 你就不会被挠 if she had realized you wouldn't have got scratched.
学生:如果她想你这样做呢? Student: what if she wanted you to?
教授:不 我们没说她想 Prof.: No we are not talking about wanting in here.
学生:但是它们是相同的 Student: but they are the same
教授:不 前提是分开的 Prof.: No no the premises are separate.
前提完全分开 The premises are completely separate we are looking at
我们在分开地看每一个 the meaning of each one separately.
所以这个意味着 so the implication for this one is that
如果她意识到了 你就不会被挠 if she had realized you wouldn't have gotten scratched.
如果你用错误的方式去逗她 If you were going to tickle her the wrong way
你就应该被挠 you deserve to get scratched.
所以这里出现了应该的问题 So the question of deserve is coming in here.
结论是如果她想让你去逗她 So the conclusion is if she did want you to tickle her,
你用了错误的方式 and you went about it in the wrong way,
那么你就应该被挠 then you deserve to get scratched.
可怜的是她想让你逗她 So the poor thing was longing for you to tickle her
当你逗她的时候她也挠你了 and she did when you did tickle her was scratch you,
为什么会这样呢?因为你用了错误的方式 why did that happen? Because you went about it in the wrong way.
明白了吗? Have you gotten it?
学生:我还是觉得结论 Student: I still think that the conclusion has to
应该站在正确的方式上才有意义 stand in the right way and make sense.
教授:对 我现在不说话了 Prof.: right, I am going to shut up now.
我不想让你们觉得迷惑 Okay I don't want to leave on a note of confusion.
我们今天所做的重要的事是 the important thing is what we've done today is
我们看了一个论点 we've taken an argument and we looked at it
当看的时候 你们 哦 了一声 对吗? And i said we we're going to set out logic book style
我说我们会把它们设定成逻辑的课本形式 when we looked at it, you went “oahh” didn't you?
我们所做的就是识别论点 all we're going to do is identify the argument,
分析论点 揭露结构 analyze the argument, reveal its structure.
我们做的就是找出一个论点 So what we've done is we've taken the argument
识别论点的结论 we've identified the conclusion of the argument,
我们很容易就做到了 我们识别出了每一个前提 we all did that fairly easily, we identified each premise,
很容易不是吗? we did that fairly easily, yes?
我们寻找隐含的前提 We looked for suppressed premises
但是我告诉你们那里没有 but I told you there weren't any
所以我们不用操心 so we didn't bother with that one
然后我们看了每个前提 then we went through each premise
移除了不一致的术语 交叉参照 we removed inconsistent terms, cross references,
和不相关的内容 并且揭露了论点 and irrelevancies and revealed the argument,
可能是很不好的论点 which might be a very bad argument for all we know,
但是我们把论点揭露出来 but we revealed the argument that was there.
我们没有强加论点 What we didn't do is trying to impose the argument,
我们本可以这么做 we would have made
因为这可能变得更好 because it may be have been a better one,
我们试图分析的论点上 on the argument that we were trying to analyze.
能跟上吗? Are you with me?
学生:可以 Student: yes
教授:所以我们所做的就是揭露论点 Prof.: so all we've done is revealed the argument here,
揭露结构 revealed the structure,
我们用P Q R S we even got it down to P's Q's R's and S's
你们下周应该做的是 Now what you should do for next week
找一个这周发现的论点 is take one of the arguments you found for this week
试着去做 and try and do that.
有很多都是 And an awful lot of that is
移除了不相关的东西和交叉参照 removing irrelevancies and cross references
和之类的东西 并且加上了隐含前提 and things like that and adding suppressed premises.
这给了你们实践的机会 And it will give you practice in doing it.
别忘了这很重要 and don't forget this is the important thing.
你可以应用这种方法 You can apply this methodology either to
我们这里看的在别人的论点上 somebody else's argument what we've been doing here
和你们将做的 and what you will do when you look at arguments
从报纸上看到的论点 from the news paper
或者应用在你们自己的论点上 or you can apply it to your own arguments.
你们认为你们经常证明 And you think of something that you often argue,
气候变化之类的东西 那是什么? climate change or something like that or I don't know. What's that
学生:(无声) Student: inaudible
教授:这很好 可以 Prof.: that's a good one that will do.
找一些你们喜欢在酒吧里证明的 Find something which you like to argue about in the pub
写下你们的结论和前提 write down your conclusion and write down your premises.
试着创造你们给出的论点 And try to make the argument you actually give,
然后当你开始评价论点的时候 so then when we start evaluating argument
我们可以看看 we can look at it.
但是你会识别出你自己的论点 but you will have identified your own argument
并把它们设定成逻辑的课本形式 and set it out logic book style
因为人们经常 because people often don't do that
不那样对待自己的论点 所以看不到 with their own arguments therefore don't see
他们是否缺少一个重要的前提 if they are missing out on a huge premise
或者这在发生 或者那在发生 或者什么 or this is happening or that is happening or whatever.
所以这周你们的作业是 So your homework for this week is
要么找一个上周的论点 either take the arguments last week
把它们设定成逻辑的课本形式 and set them out logic book style
要么选一个喜欢的宣称 or choose a claim to like to make
看看你们能不能把它们设定成逻辑的课本形式 and see if you can set it out as an argument logic book style.
好吗?天呐累死我了 Okay? God I am exhausted.