大家好 我是Maryann Tolbat Hello there, I'm Maryann Tolbat.
是牛津大学 I am the director of studies and philosophy
哲学研究及 at Oxford university's department
继续教育系的主任 of philosophy and continuing education.
我们将会开一门六周的课 We are about to start a six week course called
叫做批判性推理入门 critical reasoning for beginners,
我们将会讲如何组织论点 Notice instead that there are words…
论点有哪些不同的种类 and we're going to go through at how to recognize an argument,
即演绎和归纳 what arguments are the different types of arguments,
我们也会谈到怎样建立论点中 That's deduction and induction.
逻辑的风格 怎样分析他们 And we will be looking at how to set out an argument logic style,
然后我们会关注怎样评价他们 最后会讲谬误 and how to analyze them. Then we'll be looking at
哪些论点看起来像好论点 how to evaluate them, and finally will be looking at fallacies.
但实际上是坏的论点 好 Which are arguments which look like a good arguments
我们将以怎样组织论点 but actually are bad arguments. OK, so we're going to start off
论点的本质来开始第一周的课程 the first week by looking at how to recognize arguments,
好 我们开始 and what the nature of an argument is.
你们都在这里做批判性思考 Right, OK. Let's get started.
为什么你们想要批判性思维 You're all here to do critical reasoning.
跟我说说 你们为什么这样做? Okay, why do you want to do critical reasoning?
你们认为现在不能做的 Couple of you tells me, what you want to do with for?
这堂课结束的时候就能做了? What you think you can't do now
学生:增强我对辩论的意识 which you will be able to by the end of the course?
增强你辩论的意识 Classmate：To sharp my senses of argumentation.
教授:有人想专门辩论吗? Prof：Sharp your senses of argumentation.
学生:我的妻子 (笑声) Prof: there any one you want to argue with in particular?
教授:你知道这不管用 你结婚太长时间了 Classmate: my wife. (laughter)
学生:(声音太小) Prof: It won't work you know. You've been married too long.
教授:这里有人举手了 Classmate: INAUDIBLE
学生:指出别人论点中的缺陷 Prof: someone had their hand up over here
教授:你想能指出别人论点中的 Classmate: to detect the flaws in other people's arguments.
缺陷 好 那么你自己的论点呢? Prof: you want to be able to detect the flaws
学生:是的 in other people's argument. Ok what about your own arguments?
教授:这也是非常重要的 其中我们 Classmate: yup
将要谈论的一点就叫做慈善原则 Prof: That too, that's very important. One of the things we'll
当我谈论的时候你们会知道 be talking about it's called the principle of charity
学生:作为一个有效的观点提出者 我不想迷失 and you will see where, when I will talk about that.
实际上能够在我说的话中坚信 Classmate: I don't want to get lost, as a valid point maker,
不让更聪明的人和 to actually be able to have conviction in what I'm saying and
更有文化的人把我打倒 believe in it, and not have someone more intellectual and
教授:好 一件对这有帮助的事是 我的意思是 literate beat me down.
不会完全把技巧教给你们 因为自信源于你们自身 Prof: Right, ok and one thing that will help, I mean it won't do
但是这会帮助你感觉 the trick completely because that confidence has to come from you.
让你知道你在哪 But it will help to make you feel
后边那位 maybe where you are in argument, certainly.
学生:(声音太小) One in the back there.
教授:实际上这就是 Classmate: INAUDIBLE
我怎样学习哲学之类的东西 Prof: Actually that's how
我上过一门大学的课程 I came into philosophy or something like that.
曾是一个非常成熟的学生 I did an open university course
不是很成熟 26岁 and I was a very mature student,
那是一个开放的大学课程 not very mature, 26.
他们教论点 As I, it was an open university course
形式论点 我努力学这个论点 and they did logic courses those days,
它太难了 formal symbolic logic, and I tried to do this logic
我是说非常非常难 我经常熬夜 and I found it so difficult,
早上仍然努力学习 really really difficult and I sat up all night.
我意识到我的夜晚 Still trying to do it and in the morning
多么愉快 I'd realize that I had such a much nicer night,
比熬夜做其他乱七八糟的事情好得多 a much better night than I had with
我十分享受 all sorts of other things you might stay up all night to do.
这是哲学吸引我的第一步 I really enjoyed it and that's what got me into philosophy
我离开了学校 回到家 in the first place.
最终 最终 这花了很长时间 I came straight out of school, and I came home here.
但是我从未失去对哲学的热爱 Eventually, eventually. That took quite a bit of time.
我从未失去对学习的热爱 But I have never lost my love of philosophy,
这些都与哲学有关 I've never lost my love for learning
当你们在论点的时候 你们的这种自信 and that's all down to philosophy.
是因为如果你们学习了怎样恰当的论点 This confidence you have when you're having an argument
原则上没有什么能隐藏的 because if you can learn how to argue properly,
找出论点中的事实 nothing is hidden from you in principle;
评价论点并且 it's always possible to tease out the arguments
让自己更进一步是可能的 所以我希望在这 and to evaluate the arguments and to take yourself that step further.
六节课之后 你们不会了解 So I hope that after this series of six lectures,
论点的一切和理性怎样合理 但是我希望 Of course, you're not going to go away knowing all about logic
这段时间我做的一切会给你们带来自信 and all about how reason properly but I hope that
让你们感觉到走自己的路是多么的快乐 what I've done by that time is giving you the confidence
开始审视自己 我会非常乐意 and give you a feeling of how fun it can be so you'll go your way,
给你们一些关于你们怎样做的读物和其他的观点 That's all there is to an argument, I put others with the “s”
好 让我谈一谈 and start looking yourself and I'll be very happy and pass on
Monty Python 我相信你们当中有人认识他 some reading and get some other ideas about how you can do that.
这叫做论点的荡妇 有一个人 Right, ok, so let me tell you about
我忘了他的名字 进来和Johncley说话 Monty Python. I'm sure some of you know about it,
这里有论点吗?或者像那样 but what it is, that it's called the argument callet, and one man,
Johncley说管他是不是呢 I forgot his name goes in and says to Johncley sitting there,
不 你没有 我有 is this the place for arguments? Or something like that and
你们没有 Johncley says what if it is.
这一直持续 他说你们没有在辩论 No you haven't, yes I have,
你们在跟我抬杠 no you haven't, yes I have.
Johncley说 不 我不是 This goes on and he says you're not arguing
他说 是的 你就是在跟我抬杠 you're contradicting me
我不是 你是 and Johncley says no I'm not,
这一直持续 然后按下铃 标志着这一阶段的结束 he says yes you are,
他说这不是五分钟 Johncley说是 no I'm not, yes you are, this goes on and then
不 这不是 是 这是 他说他不是在辩论等等 presses the bell and that's the end of that session.
这应该是很搞笑的开场白 He says that wasn't five minutes, yes it was says Johncley,
但是我想继续说的是 no it wasn't, yes it was I'm not arguing says he and so on.
Johncley理解错了 That was supposed to be an amusing introduction,
当然一个论点不是一组对比 but what I wanted to move on to is the idea
这不是你说一件事我说其他的事 that Johncley had it wrong,
这使我们停滞不前 of course an argument isn't a set of contradictions,
论点的一部分是 it isn't a set of just you say one thing and I say another.
是让我们从现在的地方前进一点 That doesn't get us anywhere;
想想看 如果这是我们可以通过自己的感觉 part of the point of an argument is to move us on
与世界斗争的唯一方式 如果我们能看到一件事然后形成 from where we are to somewhere a bit further.
一种信仰 不会动摇去信仰其他 Just imagine, if the only way we can fight about the world was
所以你们会说这是蓝色的 地毯也是蓝色的 through our senses, if we can see one thing and form
不能说这两种同样颜色的 one belief and not take that belief and move on to another belief.
东西相配 于是椅子的颜色和地毯的颜色相配 So you could say that's blue and the carpet's blue,
你们看到了吗?论点把我们 but you couldn't say when two things of the same color they match
带到我们想来的地方 或者我们不想去的地方 therefore the chair color and the carpet matched.
没有论点 我们寸步难行 是的 Do you see? An argument takes us from where we are to where
我们成技术人员了 we want to be, or sometimes where we don't want to be.
好 让我们来看看一个论点的定义 We're awash with technicians here.
一个论点是一组句子 我说是句子 Ok so let's look at the definition of an argument.
之后你们不会相信这是论述 主张 An argument is a set of sentences, and I put sentences there
论述的表现或者之类的 after you wouldn't believe it of statements, propositions or
我说是句子 如果有人想和我争论的话 expressions of statements or something like that,
我很欢迎 一组那样的句子 but I'm putting sentences and if anyone wants to quarrel with
是那些句子中被认为是正确的 that is welcome to do so. A set of sentences such that one of
其他的事当做原因来支持对最初真理的信仰 those sentences is being said to be true, and the others are being
这就是一个论点 我把s放在括号里 offered as being reasons to support believing the truth of the first.
是因为我们可能说 in bracket here because of course we might say that
一件事在另一句话的基础上是正确的 one thing is true on the basis of just one other sentence.
"今天是星期五 Maryann经常在星期五穿牛仔裤 So here's an argument “It's Friday, Maryann always wears jeans
所以Maryann今天会穿牛仔裤" Ok that's a set of sentences that is as a matter of fact
好 这是一组句子 实际上是一个论点 an argument. Ok so what are the sentences? Tell me what
好 什么是句子呢? the sentences are. This is an easy question, so allow yourself
告诉我什么是句子 这是个简单的问题 into a false sense of security. It's Friday, that's one sentence,
然你们产生一个虚幻的安全感 今天是星期五 ok it's I put a comma after it so we're going straight into
这是一句话 在下一句之前 我写了一个逗号 the other sentence. But that doesn't matter it is Friday is a sentence,
但是这不影响今天是周五这个句子 ok next one. Told you it was easy, Maryann always wears jeans
好下一个 告诉你们这很简单 Maryann经常 on a Friday, ok next one, Maryann will be wearing jeans today,
在周五穿牛仔裤 好下一个 Maryann今天会穿牛仔裤 ok those are the sentences that make up the argument exactly so.
那些是组成论点的句子 Now here's a bit of technology,
现在这有一点技术含量 专有名词 terminology actually, conclusion is the sentence said to be true
结论是被认为正确的句子 and the premises of the sentence being offered as reasons
句子的前提是作为 for believing the other one. Ok remember that might be
相信另一个的原因出现 好 记住那可能只是 just one that might be just one premise doesn't need to be two
一个前提 不一定是两个 that could be twenty premises. But what makes something
也有可能会是20个 但是使之成为前提的是 a premise and what makes something a conclusion is the role that
和使之成为结论的是 they are playing the argument the function. There,
他们在论点中的作用 that's all. Here's the argument again. so what's the conclusion
就是这样了 这是哪个论点 什么是结论呢? of the argument? That's right yup, that's the conclusion,
是的 那就是结论 a particular way that …
因为那是我们认为正确的 because that's the one we are saying is true.
什么是前提呢? 这些是对论点和一个结论的前提 What are the premises? That is right there are to premises of
好 非常简单 the argument and one conclusion. OK very simple stuff, so there's
所以结论是红色的 MaryAnn今天会穿牛仔裤 the conclusion in red, that Maryann will be wearing jeans today
前提是绿色的 区分论点和一组句子 and the premises in green, and it's very important to
非常重要 让我们来看看怎样做 distinguish arguments from sets of sentences. Let's see how to do that.
一个论点是一组句子 但不只是这些 An argument is a set of sentences but it is more than that.
不仅仅是一组句子 There's more to that than just a set of sentences.
后面的同学有问题 Question in the back?
学生:你能接受提问吗? Classmate: What about taking questions?
教授:我很乐意回答问题 Prof: I'm very happy to take questions.
如果我觉得问题太长 If I think they can go on too long
可能会打断你 放在问答环节 I'll shut you up and put you on in the question time.
或者我觉得太复杂 我会讲一些其他的 Or if I think it's complicated I'll do something otherwise.
我会解答的 继续 I'll just take them. Go on.
学生: 听不清 [inaudible]
在那个特别的论点中 In that particular argument
是的那是个很好的问题 我们回头看看 yes that's a good question lets go back to it.
实际上我很乐意你们提问 Actually I'm very happy for you to ask me questions because
因为你们这样做可能将问题解释的更清楚 if you do, it might be a clarification question like that one,
非常有用 如果你注意那个 我们就跳到 which is quite useful. If you look at that, let's skip to that one.
那个上面 如果你剔除了前提 你可能仍然有 If you take out that premises, you might still have an argument.
一个论点 你说今天是星期五 所以她会穿牛仔裤 You say it's Friday so she will be wearing jeans today.
但是这样就完了吗?是的 你们 But what have you done? That's right you've left
拉下了一个隐含前提 对吗?因为那不会 a suppressed premise haven't you? Because that wouldn't be
是一个好论点 那仍然是一个论点 a good argument, it would still be an argument,
因为你仍然给出了一个句子和一个理由来相信另一个 because you'd still be giving a sentence and a reason to believe
但是这不能成为一个 another one. But it couldn't be an argument that could
有可能非常有说服力的论点 如果不是那样的话 possibly be very convincing; were it not for that.
所以我们经常把前提隐含在论点中 So we often leave the premises suppressed in an argument,
经常在 因为语境或者 usually when, because of the context because of something
我们假设的基础上 就像人们知道另一个 that we can assume. Like the person knows the other one.
我们都知道你知道每周五我都穿牛仔裤 We all know that you knew that every Friday I wear jeans,
这可能是一个没有第二前提的论点 which would be an argument without the second premise,
所以感谢你提这个问题 好 我们会讲 so thank you for that. Yes, good job we will talk about
Mark Lazae 但是我们稍后再讲 不是今天 Mark Lazae, but we will talk later about that, not today.
学生:你可以说在周五穿牛仔裤 Classmate: You could say that wears jeans on Fridays,
然后说她今天会穿牛仔裤 and say she is wearing jeans today.
教授:是的你可以那样说 但是那样 Prof: yes you could say that, but that would
就是另一个论点了 但依然是一个论点 be a different argument, but still an argument.
学生:你可以改变句子顺序 Classmate: You can change the sentence and say that
说她今天穿牛仔裤 所以今天是星期五 she is wearing jeans today, therefore it is Friday.
教授:这会是一个伪论点 先放放 Prof: Well, that would be a false argument, hold that one.
我们一会回来再看 你们会明白我的意思 We'll come back to that in a minute and you'll see what
但是我没有写下来 I meant about that but I just want to note that.
我继续讲 你们可以提出一个论点 I'm going to move on, and yes you can make an argument out of that
但是我继续讲 并让你们知道为什么我那样说 but let me just move on and show you exactly why I say that.
好 把论点和几组句子分开是很重要的 Ok it's important to separate arguments from just
几组句子不是论点 any sets of sentences, sets of sentences that are not arguments
他们之间可能没有任何关系 might not have anything relation at all between them.
比如说 一组句子可能是连续的 For example, a set of sentences might be consistent,
也就是说 这样他们在一起可能是正确的 i.e. such that they can only be true together
而不是一个论点 你们明白吗? without being an argument. Do you see what I mean?
或者他们有互相提及的关系 Or they could be related by all referring to,
你叫什么? whats your name?
学生:Mike Classmate: Mike.
教授:Mike 他们可能在某种意义上有关系 Prof: Mike. They could be related in that way without being
而不是作为一个论点 你们明白吗? an argument. Do you see what I mean? There are lots of
几组句子有许多不同的方式相互联系 different ways that sets of sentences can be related.
但是这种成为论点的联系 But the relation, in order to be one of an argument,
必须怎么样呢? it has to what?
学生:(声音太小) Classmate: INAUDIBLE
教授:好的 为了成为一个论点 Prof: good in order to be an argument one sentence you have to
你必须把一句话放在前面作为正确的 put forward as being true and the other sentences or sentence
其他一个或几个句子作为相信前面那个的理由 is the reason for believing that. Thats the relation that
这种关系标志着论点 characterizes an argument and nothing else. Here's a set of sentences
这有不是论点的一组句子 that isn't an argument. The sea is salt, Melbourne is in Australia.
海是咸的 墨尔本在澳大利亚 但是很容易把这变成一个论点 But it is very easy to make it into an argument, the sea is salt,
海是咸的 所以墨尔本在澳大利亚 therefore Melbourne is in Australia. Now do you think
你们觉得我把它变成一个论点了吗?如果没有的话 为什么? I have made that into an argument or not? No, why not?
学生:这是一个伪论点 Classmate: It's a false argument
教授:这个特殊 Prof: now that particular one,
过一会你们就会明白为什么我这么说 it's a what?
这是什么 There is no link between the set of sentences.
一组句子之间没有联系 So you think that by putting therefore in there
所以你们认为只是加上一个所以 it doesnt make it into an argument?
并不能把它变成一个论点 Ok let me tell you a little story.
好 我给你们将个小故事 We're doing a camel show, we've got to find out things,
我们在做一个骆驼展 要找到好多东西 and we come back with them and win a huge prize.
我们赢了一个大奖回来 We're particularly ignorant contestants here; we don't know
我们是特别无知的参赛者 whether the sea is salt or if Melbourne is in Australia,
我们不知道海是否是咸的或者墨尔本是不是在澳大利亚 but we do know that if one of the sentences here is true,
但是我们知道如果这里一句话是真的 then so is the other. Thats all we know,
另一句也是 这就是我们所知道的 if one of these sentences is true, then so is the other.
如果一句话是真的 那么另一句也是 So now we have to find out which one of these sentences is true,
所以现在我们要找到哪一句是真的 so half of us run off to find out.
我们当中一半人 If the sea is salt,
去找海是不是咸的 while the other half goes off to find out
另外一半人去找 if Melbounre is in Australia.
墨尔本是不是在澳大利亚 The sea is salt group comes back and
找海是咸的那一组 says the sea is salt therefore Melbounres in Australia,
回来说海是咸的所以墨尔本在澳大利亚 is that an argument? No! what do you mean no that ought to be
这是一个论点吗?不是!你说不是 a good argument. isn't it? What I'm saying is that I'm giving
这应该是一个好论点啊 不是吗?我要说的是 a reason, that Melbounre is in Australia is true Aren't I?
我给出一个理由 墨尔本在澳大利亚是真的 I'm giving the reason for it namely being that the sea is salt.
然后给出证明他的理由 也就是海是咸的 Fair enough? Is it an argument? It was an argument before
足够了吧 这是个论点吗? I gave you the context because arguing is something that
这在我给你们这个语境之前就是了 因为辩论是 we do with sentences, we do that for all sorts of reasons,
与句子有关的 我们有许多原因来做那些 be it our background, what we've just found out, our desires
不管我们的背景是什么 发现了什么 our hopes and fears and intentions things like that.
我们的欲望 希望 恐惧和意愿之类的 Argument is something that we do and we can do it
论点是我们能且可以 in any way, and this is why the idea of artificial intelligence,
以任何方式做的 这种方式是为什么人工智能的理念 which was talked about a great deal a few years ago,
也就是很多年前热门的话题 is getting nowhere. The reason being that human beings
现在销声匿迹了 作为人类可以认识到 can see the relevance of where context is provided,
语境的相关性的原因已经有了 there's a computer so far It's really see it, fingers crossed that
这里有一个电脑 太远了看不到 十指交叉 we will be able to see this one. But the fact is that this one
我们能看到这个 但是事实是这个 and in any type of context you can see the argument.
在任何语境下你都能认识到论点 Some of you. you're absolutely right,
有些人 你们是对的 you could say that there is a suppressed premises in there,
你们可以说这里有一个隐含的前提 that if the sea is salt, then Melbounre in Australia.
如果海是咸的 那么墨尔本就在澳大利亚 So if we were getting contestants in that situation,
如果我们在那种情况下参赛 I wouldn't have to give that suppressed premises
我不会给出那个隐含的前提 because we would all know it. But again, well done,
因为我们都知道 但是这很好 you picked up the points. If provided the context,
你说到点子上了 如果有了语境 Student: If what you're saying is True …
这是我们能够明白隐含的前提 it enables us to see the suppressed premises,
因为这时我们不能理解前提 because just for the moment we couldnt see the suppressed premises,
我么不明白为什么这是一个论点 你想否认 and we don't see why that is an argument, and you want to deny that
这是一个论点 因为你看不到两者的相关性 it is an argument because you It's see the relevance
我做的就是把两者关联起来 between the two. What I did was make one relevant to the other,
这样做我就给你们提供了隐含的前提 and in doing so I provided you with the premise that
所以这里有一个隐含的前提 was suppressed. So there is a suppressed premise that is
因为前提常常是句子 a sentence because premises are always sentences.
这就是你们得到的语境 Thats what you got provided the context.
学生:我有点费解 Classmate: I'm struggling with that.
教授:很好的问题 你不明白的 Student: You can see from the context…
我刚才没说 这叫诱因和蕴含 Prof: very interesting question. What you're confusing,
论点的前提不能导致论点的结论正确 I apologize is causation and entailment. The premises of
如果这是前提 那是也是前提 an argument do not cause the conclusion of an argument to
你们觉得让我今天穿牛仔裤的原因是这两件事吗? be true. If that's a premise and that that's a premise,
不一定 可能是 可能我在周五穿牛仔裤 do you think what caused me to wear jeans today are these two things?
是为了纪念妈妈给我买的第一条牛仔裤 Not necessarily. It might be, maybe I wear jeans on Fridays
或者这之类的 我可能每天都穿牛仔裤 to commemorate the first ever jeans that my mother
只是因为A和B蕴含着C ever bought me or something like that. I might wear
不意味着A和B导致了C jeans every day, exactly so, just because A and B entails C,
教授:当你说C本身不能导致墨尔本在澳大利亚 doesnt mean A and B cause C.
你们是对的 但是说C等等等等 Prof: when you say C itself doesnt cause Melbounre to be in Australia
所以墨尔本在澳大利亚 you're quite right. But to say C and so and so
没有倾向任何的诱因 therefore Melbounre is in Australia isn't
学生:如果有其他的墨尔本 inclining causation of any kind.
你会怎么做? Student: What do you do if you have two
教授:无视他 这是个很好的问题 other Melbounres in the room?
我很高兴你能提出来我们来解决其中一个问题 Prof: Ah you ignore them. Again that's a very good question
我们可以拿Maryann举例 有许多人叫Maryann I'm glad you asked it, lets get to solve one of these.
这里有人叫Maryann吗? We can do one with a Maryann, there's lot of people called Maryann
如果你叫约翰请举手 这是第二次了 Is anyone called Maryann in this room? Put up your hand
好 这里没有人叫约翰 if you are called John. This is the second time that
有人叫Mike吧?你是Mike has happened to me. OK, there is no John in this room.
学生:是的 Is here anyone named mike? you're Mike
教授:还有人叫Mike吗?这里有两个Mike Student: yes
如果我说Mike很高 这就很模糊 Prof: is there anyone else called Mike? There is two Mikes
不是吗?有两个意思 我可能说这个Mike in this room. If I say Mike is tall then that's ambiguous, isn't it?
也可能说那个Mike 你们当中的一个可能很矮 That has two meanings, I can refer to that Mike or that Mike.
这就是伪论点 对另一个人来说就是真论点 And one of you might be short in that case it would be false,
我实际得到的是两句话 这是一种 where for one of you it will be truth than the other.
我没有笔来相信 What I actually got here is two sentences
那种不在列表上的事 我打赌你不能理解 there is a type of sentence-I have no pens believe it or not,
学生:我们能想象 that is another thing that fell off the list. I bet you It's see this.
教授:是的你们可以想象 Mike很高 Student: we can imagine it
实际上我说约翰很高 Prof: Yes you can imagine it. Mike is tall-matter of fact if
在这里就没有意义 I say John is tall, in fact that has no meaning
这里没有约翰 但是我可以用那句话 in the context of this room in the sense. There is nobody to whom
说约翰很高对吧? John refers to, but I could use that sentence.
这有一种可能用来说事情的 John is tall to say something couldnt I?
我能用这种句子说Mike很高 Here is a sentence type that could be used to say
或者我能用同样的句子说Mike很高 things, I could use this type of sentence to say Mike is tall.
一种句子 两种不同的象征 我这是什么意思呢? Or I can use the same sentence to say Mike is tall. They are
就像一种椅子的象征 two different tolkens for one type of sentence. See what I mean?
这是另一个 一个象征着一种人 Just as that's one token of the type of chair and that's another one.
另一个象征另一个 Mike很高是一种句子的象征 One token of the type of human beings and that's another one.
麦克很高是另一种句子的象征 Mike is tall is a token of that type of sentence.
实际上如果有两个墨尔本 Mike is tall is another token of that type of
你可以有两个论点 可能是 sentence as well. So actually if you have two Melbounres,
澳大利亚北部的墨尔本 you can have two arguments in which that could be. It could either
或者是澳大利亚维多利亚的墨尔本 be Melbounre which is in the northern territory is in Australia
学生:在德比郡 or Melbounre which is in Victoria is in Australia.
教授:不在德比郡因为 Student: In Durbyshire.
这会使其成为伪论点 除非德比郡在澳大利亚 Prof: Not in Durbyshire because that will
学生:(声音太小) falsify that one wouldn't it? Unless there's an Durbyshire in Australia.
教授:我先放着这个问题 Student: INAUDIBLE
过一会再谈 好 论点是我们用句子组成的 Prof: I am going to hold over that question, I will come back
任何论点中的句子 to it shortly. Ok so arguing is something we do with sentences,
都没有这种东西 也就是一句话不在一个论点当中 any sentences can fall in part of an argument there is
使其成为论点的是 no such thing that there is a sentence that couldnt fall part
我们在做一个论点的宣称 我们把一句话放在前面 of an argument. What makes this an argument is that we are
然后把其他句子作为理由 making an argument claim. We are putting forward one
来相信那句话 你不能通过论点中的句子 sentence and we are offering another sentence is reasons to
意识到论点 你要从句子的关系中意识到论点 believe the sentence. You cannot recognize arguments by
现在我们来看看 the sentences that are within arguments you got to recognize
哪些句子是论点? the relation between the sentences. Now lets look at these,
谁认为这个是论点?好 没有人 which of these sentences are arguments? Right who thinks
为什么认为那是个论点? that this is an argument? Ok no one else.
学生:因为暴风雨爆发 Why do think that's an argument?
是因为云层形成之后天黑了 Student: Thats an argument because the storm broke
教授:暴风雨是因为云层形成之后天变黑爆发的 because the clouds formed and the sky blackened.
这像一个论点吗? Prof: The storm broke because the clouds formed and
因为 因为这个词非常难 the sky Blackened. Does that sound like an argument?
因为区别诱因和理由 Because. That word because is very difficult , because
这里可能有一个两者的因果关系 distinguish causes and reasons for something. There can be
两件事的音关关系可能是一两句话或者两种信仰 a causal relations between two events. A causal relations
关系中的关系 我们习惯 between two events and there could be a rational relation
在这些关系中用因为 between two sentences or two beliefs. We tend to use
因为这些是诱因 那些是理由 because for both of these types of relations. Because these
你不应该担心犯错 are causes and those are reasons and you shouldnt be
因为这个很简单 worried about making these errors because
你可以想到一个因果关系是理性的 但是这样吗? it is a very very common one. You would think
好这不是一个论点 the causal relation is a rational one, but it isn't is it?
因为这所有说的都是 Okay so that is not an argument,
在云层形成 because all it's saying that there are
天空变黑和暴风雨爆发这三件事是有因果关系的 three events happening the clouds form,
在这其中我们不是说这些是 the sky blackens and the storm broke there is a causal relation
相信其他的原因 你们能跟上吗?这个呢 between them but we are not saying that these are reasons for
这是个论点吗?如果你觉得是的话就举手 believing the other. You with me? What about this one,
结论是什么? is this an argument? Put your hand up if you say yes. Yes. Okay.
学生:(声音太小) What is the conclusion?
教授:前提是什么? Student: INAUDIBLE.
学生:(声音太小) Prof: And what is the premises?
教授:好 曼彻斯特在牛津北边 Student: INAUDIBLE
爱丁堡在曼彻斯特北边 Prof: Thats right. Manchester is north of Oxford.
爱丁堡在牛津北边就是结论 Edingborough is north of Manchester. Edingborough is
这一个 因为曼彻斯特在牛津北边 north of Oxford is the conclsion.
爱丁堡在曼彻斯特北边 This one is, since Manchester is north of Oxford,
爱丁堡在牛津北边是结论 Edingborough is north of Manchester, and Edingborough is north
其他两个是前提 这肯定是一个论点 of Oxford. Edingborough is north of Oxfrod is the conclusion.
木片浮动 因为木片 The other two are the premises. That's definitely an argument.
是由木头做成的 木头能浮动 这是个论点吗? Woodchips float, because woodchips are
这是个论点 你是对的 made up of wood and wood floats. Is that an argument or no?
结论是什么? Thats an argument, your quite right.
学生:木片浮动 What is the conclusion?
教授:好 木片浮动 前提呢? Student: Woodchips floats
学生:木头浮动 Prof: Okay Woodchips floats, and the premises are?
教授:木头浮动 对 Students: And Woods float.
注意这里前置的结论没有任何影响 Prof: Woods float. Thats right. Notice that the
什么是一句话成为结论呢? conclusion in the front here doesnt make any difference
学生:这可能有两个前提 does it? What makes a sentence a conclusion?
教授:不 这可能不由另外两个前提引出 Student: It might follow the two premises.
这可能是一个坏的论点 Prof: No it might not follow the other
什么使其成为结论? two premises it might be a bad argument.
学生:是结论这个词吗? What makes something a conclusion?
教授:不是 Student: The word conclude?
学生:(声音太小) Prof: Nope.
教授:快点说啊 Student: INAUDIBLE
学生:这是你说正确的 Prof: Common Somebody!
教授:这是你们说正确的 Student: It's the one you're saying is true.
你们因为其他的而说这是对的 Prof: It's the one you're saying is true.That's right.
不论这是一个理性的推理或者因果联系 You are saying this is true because of the others,
然我来告诉你唯一的理由 whether it's a rational reasoning not a causal reason.
是一句话成为结论或者前提的理由 Let me tell you again the only reason that
是他在论点中扮演的角色 makes a sentence a conclusion or a premise is the role that
如果他在句子中的角色是为了你的论点 那就是结论 it's playing in the argument. If it plays the role of
如果他在你给出的句子中 the sentence for which you are arguing then it's a conclusion and
是想起另外一个的理由那么他就是前提 if it plays a role of the sentence for which you are offering
好 这是唯一的 as a reason of believing for another one then it's a premise.
能够使句子成为结论或者理由的事 Okay that's an only thing that
学生:如果你说正确的 makes a sentence a premise or a conclusion.
教授:我们马上就讲真理 你是对的 Prof: We will come to truth in a minute your quite right
真理很重要 但是 that the truth is very important. But just yet.
稍微注意一下 没有理由说明 Notice it slightly. THere's no reason why sentence that's
一个论点中作为结论的句子不能再另外一句中成为前提 playing a conclusion in one argument It's play as a premise
这就是为什么通过他的作用或者角色 in another argument. Thats why it is very important to know
了解什么是论点和前提的重要性 what a premise or an argument is by the function or the role
没有任何句子中的特点 it is playing. Not anything intrinsic to the sentence.
如果句子中有特点的话 If it's intrinsic to the sentence then you have a sentence that
你们可以有一个只能做结论的句子 非常怪不是吗? can only be a conclusion, which is rather odd isn't it?
我相信似的 什么使一个 And I'm sure they are. So what makes sentence
句子成为你论点的结论呢 a conclusion is that you are arguing for it what
什么使你用来证明其他事得前提呢? makes a premise is what your using it argue for something else.
好如果你觉得这是个论点就举手吧 Okay is this argument hands up if you think it is
学生:这不一定 Students: It depends
教授:这更难了不是吗 Prof: Hmm, It's a more difficult one isn't it
如果他是一个论点 什么会是结论呢? if it were an argument which would be the conclusion.
学生:(声音太小) Student: INAUDIBLE
教授:前提是Jesse James离开了镇上 Prof: Then the premise would be Jesse James left town
Jesse James把他的帮派也带走了 and Jesse James took his gang with him. So we can say
所以我们可以说Jesse James把他的帮派带走了 Jesse James left town. Jesse James took his gang with him,
所以 境况好了很多 Therefore, things have been a lot better.
学生:这是个暗含的前提 Student: Thats an implied premise,
因为Jesse James离开了镇上 because Jesse James left town
教授:我们可以把一切创造为论点 Prof: We can make anything an argument. I don't think
我不认为我自己的一个论点是一组相关联的句子 that's an argument myself I just think it's a concatenation of
一些句子拼在一起 sentences. Several sentences strung together. In fact there
实际上可能有因果关系 could be a causal relationship there too, isn't there?
为什么安静了?因为Jesse James离开了镇上 Why is things quieter? Because Jesse James left town and took
并带走了他的帮派 his gang with him as well.
学生:那可能是一个解释 Student: Well that could just be an explanation.
教授:哦 一个解释 理由和诱因? Prof: Ah now explanation. Reasons and causes?
现在你们要接触到有意思的东西了 Now you're really getting to the interesting stuff.
解释可能是因果或者理性的混合物 Explanations can be causal and or rational compound.
所以我可以给出你们行为的一个解释 说那是理性的 So I can give an explanation of your behavior that's rational
或者解释成因果的 or I can give an explanation of your behavior that causal.
你叫什么名字? So whats your name?
学生:保罗 Student: Paul.
教授:所以不管保罗这样做的原因是什么 Prof: So the reason Paul did that was whatever,
或者保罗因为 你叫什么名字? or Paul did that because-Whats your name?
学生:珍妮 Student: Jenny
教授:珍妮推了一下 保罗倒了 Prof: Jenny pushed it and Paul fell over.
或者保罗倒了是因为 Or Paul fell over because he was trying to
他试图去让孩子们发笑 make the children laugh. So you see one is
你明白一个是理性的解释 另一个是因果关系 a rational explanation and another is a causal explanation.
诱因 理由和解释内在地联系在一起 Causes, reasons, and explanations are intimately
我们会在这些阶段中经常谈到 tied together we will talk about them quite often in these sessions.
重要的是不是所有的诱因都是理由 the important thing is that not all causes are reasons,
可能所有的理由都是诱因 it may be that that all reasons are causes, it's not the case
这不是这个案例中所有的诱因和理由 that all causes are reasons. Because some causes are not rational.
因为有些诱因不理性 他们没有理由参与其中 They have no reasons involved in them at all.
不管怎么样 这很复杂 你们不需要担心 Anyway, this is getting complicated, you don't need to worry about this.
重要的是一组句子只是一个论点 The important thing is that a set of sentences is
如果你把一句话前置 作为正确的 only an argument if you're putting one forward as true and
然后把其他的后置作为理由来相信前面那句 your putting others as reasons for believing the one.
这就是论点 如果一组句子 Thats what an argument is. If a set of sentences does not
没有那种关系 那就不是一个论点 have that kind of relation it isn't an argument.
学生:可能有其他理由 Student: Maybe there is some other reason
时间诱因 Prof: Maybe, a coincidence. You may say there is not
教授:可能是一个巧合 你可能说 even a causal relationship here. Actually, Jesse James left town
甚至没有一个因果关系 Jesse James离开了镇上 and took his gang with him things have been a lot
把他的帮派一起带走了 quieter because it's not necessary to do this,
境况好了很多 因为这不一定导致这个 that, or the other.
那个 或者其他 Student: But you could very easily supply context that
学生:但是你可以很容易地提供语境 it was an argument
这是一个论点 Prof: Well, as I said you can supply context
教授:好 我说过你可以提供语境 in the case anything is an argument.
在这个案例中 一切都可以称作论点 Student: Is a set of sentences, an argument,
学生:一组句子 一个论点 subjective or objective, or is it a matter of opinion?
主管或客观 或者一个观点? will be late”
教授:是吗?如果我们回去 你可以自己回答那个问题 Prof: Well Is it? If we go back to, well you can answer
如果我们回到那个问题 this question yourself, if we go back to that one, Is it a matter
一个观点就是一个论点 或者 of opinion that that's an argument or did I somehow make it
我是他成为一个论点 使他看起来像个论点 an argument , did I make it appear to be an argument,
或者我创造了一个论点 or did I make it an argument? It may be that
可能我通过创造一个论点使他看起来像一个论点 I made it appear like an argument by making it an argument.
学生:你可以从语境中看出来 Prof: And therefore it became an argument or you
教授:所以这成为了一个论点 started to see that it was an argument. Is that right?
或者你开始明白这是一个论点 对吗? Student: Yes
学生:是的 Prof: So, objective and subjective, when I used to teach
教授:客观和主观 undergraduate I used to say I wouldnt let them use
原来我教本科生的时候 those words until their 3rd year. They are very difficult words,
大三才让他们用这个词 这些是非常难的词 the reason that they are difficult words is because there are
原因是有一些 objective facts about subjective things. If you think
关于主观事物的客观事实 a subjective state is the state of the subject .
如果你认为一个主观状态是主语的状态 State of happiness or something like that, then objective facts
高兴的状态或者之类的 on a Friday, so Maryann will be wearing jeans today”.
那么关于这种状态的客观事实 你搞不高兴 about such states, are you happy or not.
这是一个不好的例子 但是你们明白我的意思 Thats a bad example, but you see what I mean.
学生:如果我说这不是一个论点 Student: Can I reject an argument if I say
我能反驳他么? I don't think it's an argument.
学生:或者你的意思是如果是一个有效的论点 Student: Or do you mean if it's a valid argument?
教授:我马上就会区别它们 Prof: I was just about to make that distinction.
好 两个问题是 没有论点 Okay, 2 questions to ask is , that isn't an argument or that
或者不是一个好论点 isn't a good argument.
学生:你怎么知道的? Student: How do you know?
教授:很明显你们对那个宣称做了区分 Prof: Clearly you can make a distinction of that claim.
不管是哪个人在做 都是很有意思的 if you don't mind I'd like to leave that aside and I'll think
如果你不介意我会先把这个放到一边 about what I think about. I am not sure. I have a feeling you
我会先想想我想的 我不确定 我觉得你们会说 would say "yes it is" But then you would have provide the
是的 他是 但是然后你们就会提供语境 context in which it would make it clear for the other person
在这个语境中对别人来说就会更清晰 that it's an argument. Okay, Lets move on
这是个论点 好 我们继续 Student: INAUDIBLE
学生:(声音太小) Prof: What did he say?
教授:你说什么? Student: That it's not an argument.
学生:这不是一个论点 Prof: Oh, Thats not an argument, indeed he did say that.
教授:哦 那不是个论点 他是这样说的 Thats not an argument, I thought he meant by that is that,
那不是个论点 我想他的意思就是这样 that's just a contradiction. You have two sentences one that
那只是一个对比 有两句话 contradicts the other. Thats not an argument and that's
互相矛盾 这不是一个论点 an argument against, but that not the argument in the truth of it.
但是也不是真实的论点 it's the argument of the truth that that's an argument.
这是一个真理的论点所以他是一个论点 Student: Thats confusing
学生:我不明白 Prof: Ooh clarity of thought is wonderful.Right, lets move on.
教授:哦 清晰的思路太棒了 好 我们继续 There are often words that suggests the successive sentences
有许多词标志着连续的句子 are an argument. When we looked at these,
是一个论点 当你们看这些的时候 you sir wanted to be causing that, because that would convince you
你想引发那个 因为那能说服你 that it was an argument. Should it have been done?
是一个论点 这应该做吗? Student: No
学生:不是 Prof: No, not necessarily.
教授:不 不一定 因为有时候可以是一个论点 Because it does sometimes can be an argument, but not always.
但不一定总会是 Okay what is the argument word in this one?
好 这里什么是论点的标志词呢? Student: Since
学生:因为 Prof: Oh hang on, ok how about that one?
教授:等等 那个呢? Student: So.
学生:所以 Prof: So. Ok. Can you give me anymore?
教授 所以 好 还有吗? Student: If
学生:如果 Prof: If, that is a difficult one. I'll talk about that in a minute.
教授:如果 这个挺难的 我过会再讲 I'll put it in one side. Because there a proposition of
先放放 因为有一个暗指蕴含的介词 implication and entailment. Well do that in a minute.
我们过会再讲 Student: hence.
学生:因此 Prof: Hence is a good one. Yep.
教授:因此很好 是的 Student: Given.
学生:假设 Prof: Given, then. Yep. Then is another one that's a bit iffy actually.
教授:假设 好 还有一个有点缺陷 Student: Therefore
学生:因此 Prof: Therefore is definitely an argument word.
教授:因此肯定是一个论点词 Student: Consequently
注意有其他的词 Prof: Yep Consequently. Okay, lets leave that, so firstly
学生:所以 we've said what an argument is. And we said how to
教授:是的 所以 好 先放一放 distinguish arguments from a set of sentences. And we have
首先我们说了一个论点是什么 also go to distinguish arguments from an assertion or
然后说了怎样区分一个论点和一组句子 desertion. Okay, An argument is a set of sentences,
我们也区分了论点和主张 the time causes…
好 一个论点是一组橘子 one of which is being asserted. An assertion is a single sentence
有一个是主张 一个主张是一个句子 possibly a complex sentence, it might be Maryann is wearing
可能是一个复杂句 可能是Maryann穿着牛仔裤 jeans and it's Friday. So that's one sentence conjoined with
今天星期五 那是一句话 a sentence conjunction with the and)
和另一句话融合在一起 Thats being expressed in assertoric mode.
表现了一种主张的模式 那些句子是 So, which of these sentences are or could be assertions?
或者可能是主张呢? Student: Number 1, only number 1.
学生:第一个 只有第一个 Prof: Only number 1, exactly so. I say, could be,
教授:只有第一个 是的 because it could be I can say the room is hot and that's
我说可能是因为他可能是 我说这间教室里很热 an standard intonation that makes it a question. You see what I mean?
这是一个标准的腔调使之成为一个问题 So I can ask questions in form of words that could be used as assertoric.
你们明白吗?所以我可以用词的形式提问 So again remember that language is something we use in all sorts of ways.
可能被认为是主张 记住语言是我们以多种方式使用的 But this sentence has interrogative force doesnt it?
但是这句话有一种审问的力量 不是吗? "Is the room hot" and this has imperative force,
"房间热吗" 这有一种重要而紧急的力量 That one was being used assertorically. Not the others. Some assertions,
"提高温度!" and this will pick up on the point 2 we are making there,
这经常被用作主张 不是其他的 有些主张 Okay, you might think this is an argument because
这个用第二点 看起来像论点 it's an if, then sentence. Why isn't that an argument? Can anyone tell me?
"如果在下雪 那么信就会晚" Student: it's an assertion
你可能想这是一个论点因为 Prof: Well done, Yes it is an assertion
句子有如果 那么 这为什么不是论点的呢?谁能告诉我? Student: It might be snowing or it might not be.
学生:这是个主张 There is no truth to it.
教授:很好 这是个主张 Prof: Okay. Good. Are we asserting it is snowing?
学生:可能是在下雪 也可能没在下 Student: No
这里没有真理 Prof: Are we asserting is that the mail will be late?
教授:好 我们主张他在下吗? Student: No.
学生:没有 Prof: Are we asserting is that "If it is snowing then
教授:我们主张信会晚吗? the mail will be late?"
学生:没有 Student: Yes.
教授:我们主张"如果下雪 Prof: Yes. It's one sentence there isn't there?
信就会晚吗?" It happens to be complex. it's a sentence
学生:是的 the sub-sentencial parts are themselves sentencial
教授:是 这是一句话 不是吗? but it's not an argument because it doesnt subscribe
这很复杂 the description does it? It doesnt satisfy the claim
有一个次句部分 there must be a sentence that put foreword is true
但是这不是一个论点 因为他没有描述 and other sentence that supports the claim that
他没有满足主张 one sentence is true. So that's an implication not an entailment
肯定有一句前置的话是正确的 doesnt entail the mail will be late.
其他的句子都支持这个主张 Student: If you make it into a therefore,
那句真的话 这里是一个暗含而不是蕴含 would it make it an argument?
"在下雪"暗含了信会晚 Prof: well it would make it ungrammatical actually.
但是不蕴含信会晚 Student: No, no, as in “It is snowing therefore the mail
学生:如果你加上一个所以呢? Prof: Yes that will make it an argument because the therefore
他就能成为一个论点吗? would signal entailment. Then can signal entailment
教授:好 这可能不符合语法 but doesnt automatically. But therefore always does.
"所以在下雪 信会晚" Okay so, we need to distinguish things like that from arguments.
学生:不 就像"现在在下雪 Now we get on to be worrying around the sentence here.
所以信会晚" Thinking about assertions that are either true or false.
教授:使得这是指成为一个论点 Okay this is an interesting thing,
因为所以是一个蕴含的指示词 然后可以标志蕴含 there are only 2 sorts of things that can be true or false in
但是不是自动的 但是所以肯定会 this world, one of them is believes. Believes are either true or
好 我们要区分论点中的东西 false and the other are the sentences we use to express beliefs.
现在我们担心这句话 So if I believe the chair is blue I can express my belief
想想那些对或错的主张 in sentences that the chair is blue. Both the belief and
好 这很有意思 the sentences I use to express the belief can either be true or
这个世界上有两种事情可以对或错 false. Are you with me? Can you think of anything else that
一种是信仰 信仰或对或错 can be true or false.
两一个是我们用来表达信仰的句子 Students: Facts
如果我相信椅子是蓝的 我能用句子表达 Profs: No facts are what makes sentences true or false.
椅子是蓝的 They are not it true or false, they just exist or don't exist.
信仰和我用来表达信仰的句子可能都是对或错的 The fact that that chair is blue, makes it true
你们能跟上吗?你能想出 that the sentence that chair is blue. You with me?
什么可能或对或错的吗 Prof: When you say what about that fact or that sentence,
学生:事实 well that's either true or false isn't it?
教授:不 事实是使句子对或错 Let me just point out an ambiguity. Whats your name?
他们本身没有对错 他们只是存在或者不存在 Student: Fiona
椅子是蓝色的事实 that I am talking about the fact Aren't I? Now if I do that,
使句子椅子是蓝的正确 你们能跟上吗? now I am talking about the sentence. Right? Now if I take those
学生:那么"她头发是金色的"呢?(39 59) Student: How about “Her hair is blond?” (39.59)
教授:当你说事实或者那句话的时候 out again, then that sort of things cannot be true. The fact
或对或错 对吗? that someones hair is blond, That the hair is blond makes
我来说一个模棱两可的东西 你叫什么? true sentence that her hair is blond. Difficult stuff isn't it
学生:菲欧娜 that philosophy. But the really nice thing is if you persevere with
教授:好 菲欧娜说"他头发是金色的" Prof: Okay Fiona says “Her hair is blond” If I put it like
如果我像说事实一样组合 logic you too will be able to do thing like this.
现在如果我这样做 我就在谈论这句话 对吗? These distinctions are there to be made you just need
如果我再把这些跳出来 这种是不可能是真的 the clarity of thought to be able to make them.
有人头发是金色的 头发是金色的 Student: is that because facts are always true?
使句子为真 困难的事不是那种哲学 Prof: AH ! Facts are not true at all, facts either makes
但是很好的是如果你坚持逻辑 the sentences true. Facts, if you like, are combinations of
你也能这样做 things or events. Or things or properties or events so,
这些区分使你需要 her hair is blond is a fact that her hair is being blond.
清晰的思路来创造 Her jacket is being
学生:这是因为事实总是对的吗? Student: Green
教授:啊 事实不是总是对的 Prof: Is it green?
事实使句子正确 事实是 Student: I think so
事件的综合 或者事件或者物体 Prof: okay, whether that's a fact or not we are not really sure,
他的头发是金色的事实是她的头发是金色的 but the fact that Dianas jacket is green. These are facts
她的夹克是 that either exists or not. And some people might say Diana's
学生:绿色的 jacket is not green. The sentence expresses that the belief
教授:是绿色的吗? that that is a fact, is false. Okay sorry I lost myself
学生:我觉得是 in the beginning of the sentence.
教授:好 不管这是不是事实 Student: Is that like in the one earlier where the woodchips
事实是戴安娜的夹克是绿色的 were made of woods was a fact in that sentence?
这些事实可能存在也可能不存在 有些人可能说 Prof: that sentence refers to a fact If you like.
戴安娜的夹克不是绿色的 这些句子表达了 Student: INAUDIBLE
对这是个事实的信仰 好 Prof: I see, it referred to a potential fact, yes thank you,
我在这句话的一开始就迷失了 that's a very good point to make. If I say something false,
学生:那像之前木片 what makes it false is a fact but it's not the fact.
是有木头做成那句话中的事实嘛? Like if I say that chair is black,
教授:那句话是提及事实 the fact that whats not making the chair black, is true.
学生:(声音太小) It gets difficult as you can see. The important thing
教授:我明白了 他提及了一个潜在的事实 谢谢你 to remember is that there are 3 important levels you have to
这是个很好的点 如果我说一些错的事 keep separate in thinking clearly. And all critical reasonings
是他错误的是事实 但不是事实 that involve clarity of thought.
就像我说椅子是黑的 The levels are: The levels of language, thought,
事实是什么没有让椅子成为黑色的 是真的 and the thing I call reality, of course that's wrong because
你能看到 变难了 language and thoughts are real so that's completely wrong
重要的是记住有三个重要的等级 but I keep it that way, so if I put down red.
你们要分开清晰地思考 It is a word it is a linguistic item.
所有的批判性思考都包含思考的清晰性 Then there is the concept red, it's when I think that is red,
这些等级是:语言 思维 I am using the concept red. And then there is
和我叫做事实的等级 当然这是错的 Redness the property. So these three things are quite
因为语言和思维是如此真实 以至于完全错误 different from each other Aren't they? So if I say this pen has
但是我还是这样说 如果我写下红色 the property of being red I am talking about this.
这是一个语言学的东西 I am thinking about this pen being red I am exercising my
有一个红色的概念 当我认为那是红色的时候 concept of red. If I say the pen is Red, then I am using
我用红色的概念 the word red. Notice is French it would be a different word
然后有了红色的物体 这三样东西 wouldnt it? The same concept and the same property so
彼此非常不同 如果我说这支笔 there is an arbitrary element in language not in the other two.
是一个红色的物体 我正在说的这个 Student: so whats that in French?
我在想这支笔是红色的 Prof: I am glad I used red and not something else.
实践着我红色的概念 如果我说笔是红色的 Student: Is there an element in red, some people may see red
然后我用红色这个词 注意在法语中词语不一样 differently. Some people may see it as the color red
不是吗?同样的概念 同样的东西 some people may see it
语言中有个抽象的元素 但其他两个当中没有 Prof: This is metaphysics 101
学生:法语中叫什么? Prof: Are all facts true?.
教授:我很高兴用红色而不是别的 Student: But they Aren't the same true for different people
学生:有没有红色的元素 有些人对红色的认知不一样 Prof: Okay lets unpack what you are talking about here
有些人眼中的红色 in facts and truths and so on. Okay what you are suggesting
和其他人不一样 here is that what I see as red Mike might see it as Green.
教授:这是形而上学101 Okay why Aren't anyone wearing red? Can someone please
学生:你能说事实是真的因为 Student: Can you really say the fact is true because…
教授:所有的事实都是真的吗? wear red next time? It makes things much easier. This lady
学生:但是他们对于不同的人不是相同的正确 back there is wearing pink. So When I look at that lady,
教授:好 我们来看看你们谈的 whats your name?
用事实和真理说明 你们说的是 Student: Hildiga
我眼中的红色和Mike眼中的红色不一样 Prof: When I see Hildigas jacket I see pink.
好 有其他人穿红色的衣服吗? It looks like that, and when mike looks at it looks different
有人下次能穿红色的衣服吗?这能使解释变得更简单 so it appears different to mike. So I would say that jacket
后面这位女士穿的粉红色的衣服 当我看这位女士的时候 is pink and Mike would also say that that jacket is pink.
你叫什么名字? But the pink is different for Mike that what it is for me.
学生:Hildiga Thats what you're saying, ok
教授:当我看到Hildiga的夹克时 我觉得是粉红色 Student: INAUDIBLE.
这看起来像 当Mike看的时候 Some people might say that it's magenta and not pink.
有些不同 所以我会说 Prof: shall we not get into that? Lets makes a distinction
那件夹克是粉红色的 Mike会说那是粉色的 between systemology and met physiology that is, is something
但是粉色对于Mike来说和我不一样 a fact and another is do we know it's a fact? So lets talk
这是你们所说的 about it is pink as a fact.
学生:(声音太小) Do we know it's a fact? Vikinshine
有些人可能说这是紫红色的 不是粉红色 showed us that could we see it differently is actually
教授:我们不讲这个好吗? none question. The answer is, okay this is
我们来区分一下系统学和哲学 getting too complicated it will get us too far away.
一个是事实 另一个是我们知道他是个事实 I'm sorry, I don't want to tease you about this,
所以我们来谈谈这个作为事实的粉红色 but I just realized what I was getting into.
我们知道这是个事实吗? Student: For me personally if you say something is a belief is
Vikinshine向我们展示了我们可能有不同的眼光 either true or false, for me a belief if something you can't
实际上不是个问题 答案就是 prove or disprove you just believe it.
这太复杂了使我们走的太远 So how can you argue that god exists.
对不起 我不想嘲笑你们 Prof: Okay hang on hang on hang on, right,
但是我意识到我要讲的 you are using believes in a way that a lot of people do,
学生:对我来说 如果你说一个东西是信仰 I'm glad you brought this up.
或对或错 对我来说一个信仰是 People see believes as things you can't prove.
你不能证明存在或者不存在的东西 所以你相信 So you either have belief or you have knowledge. But that's
所以你怎么看待上帝存在的信仰 not how you use belief in philosophy; belief is something you
教授:好 稍等 postulate by someones behavior. Or it's something you put forward
你对信仰的看法和很多人一样 as true or as false. And it's certainly not the case that
我很高兴你提出这个问题 you can't prove there are many believe that you can prove.
人们认为信仰就是你不能证明的东西 Just like, I believe 2 + 2 is 4, and I dare say that you wouldnt
所以你可能有信仰或者知识 want me to even attempt to prove that because you believe
但是这不是你在哲学中使用信仰的方式 that too. Is that reasonable? Okay so here is a believe that
信仰是你通过某人的行为假设的 we believe is conclusive. true. So we don't only mean religious
或者是你写下或对或错的东西 belief or something like that. Okay if we go back to this,
不是这样的 你不能证明 许多信仰是可以证明的 lets use chair. Concept of chair and chair here. So a chair is
就像 我相信2+2=4 我敢说你们不会 something I can draw. I can't draw the concept of a chair,
想让我去证明 can I? I can only entertain it.
因为你也相信 这合理吗?好 这里有一个信仰 And I can say chair have 5 letters. See what I mean?
我们都认为是有总结性的 对 我们不是说宗教上的信仰 Chairs exist, now that's a fact. Which I can think about,
或者之类的东西 好 如果我们回到这里 2 chairs exist Barkley had said that chairs didnt exist,
还是用椅子吧 椅子的概念和这里的椅子 there just perceptions in my mind. And I can of course
一把椅子是我能画的东西 我不能画出椅子的概念 talk about what I am thinking about. That the chairs exist if
我只能怀有这个想法 indeed it is a fact, something we can think about and talk about.
我可以说 我有5个字母 明白吗? We'll never get very far without argument. Yes….here we are.
椅子存在 我能思考 there is no way… if you would like to know more about this
两把椅子存在 Barkley说椅子不存在 Do you see the distinction? You may not feel confident
他们只是我脑中的概念 我当然可以 in using it in the moment, but that's just a matter of practice.
谈论我谈论的东西 如果他是个事实的话 椅子是存在的 If we confuse these three levels we will not think clearly.
我们可以思考和谈论的 You might think like the concept of chair has five letters.
你们看到区别了吗?你们可能觉得这个时候 The concept doesnt have any letters actually. You might think
用他很自信 但是这只是一个惯例 chair has five letters, but the chair doesnt have any letters.
如果我混淆了这三个等级 我们不会清晰地思考 It doesnt make sense for a chair having letters.
你可能想椅子的感念有五个字母 You know what I mean? Going back to this one,
这个概念没和有任何字母 if I said this jug was loud, what would you think?
你可能像椅子有五个字母 但是椅子没有任何字母 Student: I would wonder if you would mean it
椅子有五个字母没有意义 in a different concept.
你知道我的意思吧?回到这个上面 Prof: and you would be perfectly reasonable in thinking
如果我说杯子很响 你觉得是什么意思? that because actually that doesnt make any sense,
学生:我会怀疑你是不是 that sentence, does it? Jugs Aren't the sort of thing
有其他概念的意思 can be loud. It has to be metaphorical or I am being poetic or
教授:你会在思考的时候完全有道理 something like that. Or I am displaying my misconception of
因为实际上这没有任何意义 the word loud to the word Jug. When you say the argument
那句话 不是吗?杯子不是那种有大响声的东西 is false, you display either you don't understand the word
者必须是变形或者我诗化它 argument or false. Arguments can't be true or false.
等等 或者我在展示我对很响对杯子这个词的误解 Arguments can only be good or bad, they can only be valid or
当你说论点是错误的时候 invalid they can't be true or false because the only thing that
你展示了要么你不懂这个词 can be true or false is beliefs or the sentences that express
要么不知道真假 论点不可能或对或错 beliefs now, in general everyday talks, we do talk about
论点只能或好或坏 他们只能有效或者无效 arguments beings true or false. Everyone does that, but if you
他们不能或真或假 因为唯一可以或真或假的东西 want to know how to reason,
是信仰或者用来表达信仰的句子 if you want to know how to
总体的来说 每天的谈话 我们讨论论点 think clearly about an argument, you must stop doing that.
是真是假 每人都这样做 Arguments can't be false, what is it for a belief to be false?
但是如果你想知道怎样推理 If I say Mike is tall, what is it about that sentence that
想知道怎样清晰地思考一个论点 makes it false?
你必须停止这样做 Student: INAUDIBLE
论点不可能错 对信仰来说错了能怎样呢? Is that right? Arguments are sets of sentences,
如果我说Mike很高 哪句话 you can't evaluate them in that way.
能使他变成错的呢? Student: Is there a form of argument that is truth preserving?
学生:(声音太小) Prof: All argument is truth preserving.
教授:这是Mike没有归入高的行列是正确的吗? At least all good arguments are truth preserving,
论点是句子组成的 because the truth of the premises is preserved
你不能用那种方式评价 Prof: it's the thing that is “Mike” that doesnt fall in the class of “Tall”
学生:有没有一种论点的形式保存真理? in the truth of the conclusion. So to say that
教授:所有的论点都保存真理 Student: So you are saying that it's true
至少好的论点保存真理 Prof: We are not saying that it's true, we are saying that
因为前提的真理保存在 it's truth preserving. Theyre different thing entirely.
结论的真理中 Okay do you understand this? This is crucially important
说一个论点是对的 我们过会再说 because to understand what truth is, is to see it's predicating
学生:你是说他是对的 only to sentences and beliefs not arguments.
教授:我们没有说他是对的 an argument is true, well talk about that later on….
我们说他保存了真理 这完全不同 To understand what an argument is, it can't be true or false.
好 你明白吗?这里非常重要 Student: I think you can see that with the argument of
因为理解什么是真理是理解他指示的 the wood and the woodchips.
句子和信仰 而不是论点 Student: That it's an valid argument.
理解什么是论点 他不能或对或错 Prof: Ah right.
学生:我想你可以通过木头和木片 Student: Doesnt that differentiate from the truth?
来理解论点 Truth is only contained in that argument. Nobody would say that
教授:你明白吗 这不能 woodchip is made of wood unless you bought it with storm,
学生:这是个有效的论点 but it terms in how the argument was constructed
教授:啊 对 Prof: You can see what, that it can't be….
学生:难道这不能区分真理吗? the reason it was valid.
真理只是在论点中才有 没有会说 Prof: Yeah, I am not sure how I can unpack your
木片是有木头做的 除非你把他带到暴风雨中 answer here except to say, oh yes that was an argument,
但是这是论点怎样 we are saying that's an argument because that is true and
建立了理由 它是有效的 we are offering reasons in believing it's the truth.
教授:是 我不确定我怎样给你们答案 The truth of that and the truth of that. So the argument itself is
除非说 哦 有一个论点 a good one and you used the word valid, we will get to valid
我们说他是一个论点因为他是对的 next week or so. But that's the argument itself
我们提供理由来相信它是真理 can't be true or false. But the sentences that constitute
它的真理和它其中的真理 所以论点本身是好的 the argument can either be true or false.
你用有效这个词 我们下周 Student: so if the sentences are false does that
会讲到有效 但是论点本身 make the argument bad?
不能或对或错 但是组成论点的句子 Prof: well that's a very important one, well come to that later.
可以或对或错 Student: does that sentence actually contain three assertions?
学生:所以如果句子是错的 Prof: it contains three sentences in which it could be
论点就是坏的吗? used as an assertion. In order for a sentence to be
教授:这很重要 我们一会再谈 an assertion it got to be asserted. I am not really asserting
学生:这句话世界包含了三个主张? this, I am just talking about it. So we have three
教授:它包含了三句话 potential assertions each of which can either be true or false.
可以被用作主张 And together they make up the argument because two are
对句子来说成为主张 应该要断言 但是我们有 offered as reasons as being the truth of the other.
断言 我只是谈论 所以我们有 Right okay a good argument, must have at least
三个潜在的主张 每个都或对或错 two characteristics, actually there are many more than
他们一起组成论点 two characteristics but we are interested in the two.
因为两个是另外一个真理的理由 These are the two: The conclusion must follow the premises okay,
好 一个好论点 至少有两个特点 and the premises must all be true. Okay, and if both those are
实际上比两个多很多 true then youve got a good argument. If one of these are true
但是我们只对两个感兴趣 but the conclusion doesnt follow even if the premises
即:结论必须紧随前提 are true then you havent gotten a convincing argument,
前提必须为真 好 如果两者都为真 or if the premises are not true even the conclusion follow then
那么就是一个好命题 you havent gotten a good argument in that way because
如果其中一个为真 结论没有紧随前提 the premises don't follow. But, having said that, we are only
如果前提是真的 这也是有说服力的论点 interested in this session, we are not interested in the truth
或者如果前提不是真的 即使结论 of the premises at all. We are interested whether the conclusion
紧随前提 这也不是个好论点 follows from the premises. So as logicians generally,
因为前提不搭 但是 这样说 we are not in the business in going out in the world
我们只对这一部分感兴趣 对前提的真理不感兴趣 to know whether the premises are true or false we are only
我们对结论是否紧随前提感兴趣 in the business of seeing whether the relations between premises
逻辑学家通常 and the conclusion are such that the conclusion follows
不研究到现实中去 from the premises. We will see next week that there are loads of
知道前提是真是假 ways conclusions can follow from premises. So I would often
或者我们只研究前提和结论 talk about arguments being good even if the premises.
之间的关系和紧随前提的结论 I mean let's take this one, ok? Is that a good argument or not?
我们下周就会 Student: Yes
学到许多紧随前提的结论 Prof: It's good in the logicians sense isn't it? Actually
我会经常谈论好论点 或者前提 the premises are all false Aren't they? There are only two
我是说我们拿这个说吧 这是个好论点吗? premises and they are false. It's not Friday. It's Monday.
学生:是的 And Maryann wears jeans on Friday is also false. You'll have to
教授:逻辑学家的感觉很好不是吗? take it from me. Though it's not a good argument in the point
实际上前提都是错的 不是吗? of view of the premises but as far as the logician is concerned
只有两个前提 都是错的 今天不是星期五 that is a good argument because the conclusion follows from
今天是星期一 Maryann星期五穿牛仔裤也是错的 the premises. Okay. So if we want to be using that argument
你们从我这得到的 虽然从前提来看 for saying anything we would want the premises to be true as well
这不是一个好论点 但是到目前为止逻辑学家 but as we are talking about the argument in order to say
认为这是个好论点因为杰伦 what is a good argument or what isn't a good argument, that
紧随前提 如果我们想用这个论点来 will do. If that's a conclusive argument isn't it? if the premises
保存我们想要的前提为真 are true then the conclusion would have to be true.
但是我们在谈论论点来说什么是好论点或者不好的论点 So it's a very good argument.
什么是好论点 什么是不好的论点 Student: INAUDIBLE
这能做到 如果是结论性论点 对吗?如果前提 Prof: no here, if the premises are true then
是真的 那么结论也应该是真的 the conclusion would have to be true wouldnt it?
所以这是一个好论点 Student: INAUDIBLE
学生:(声音太小) Prof: Well then it wouldnt be true that Maryann wears
教授:没有 如果前提是真的 jeans on Friday you would say Marianne wore jeans on
结论就是真的 不对吗? a Friday maybe.
学生:(声音太小) Student: Could you make it clear what makes a premise true,
教授:那么这不对 Is it all facts in the world?
Maryann星期五穿牛仔裤 你会说 Prof: A premise is true when, actually your asking a huge
Maryann可能星期五穿牛仔裤 phylosophical question there, say yes, if it's a fact that
学生:你能明确一下吗 makes a sentence true then it's true. I can't believe I said that,
什么使前提为真 是世界上所有的事实吗? that's awful but that will do.
教授:前提是真的 你问了一个巨大的 Student: You can't say you wear jeans every Friday if you
哲学问题 是的 如果一个事实使一句话正确 didnt have all your Fridays yet. So you can't actually say that
我不能相信我说了这些 Student 2: This is an induction
这太糟了但是我要说 Prof: This is actually a type of argument we are going to
学生:你不能说你每星期五都穿牛仔裤 be looking at next week called the inductive argument.
如果你不是所有的周五都穿 所以你不能说 An inductive argument always takes us further that we can
学生2:这是个归纳 actually go by claiming that swans are always white or
教授:这实际上是一种论点 Student: Does that justify the truth
我们下周会讲到 叫做归纳论点 Prof: We are not going into knowledge, the philosophy
一个归纳论点把我们带的更远 of knowledge is definitely not in this curriculum.
我们可以宣称天鹅一般都是白的 Going back to what I was saying there, so you all understand
Maryann经常在星期五穿牛仔裤 你可以说 the different of the truth of the premises and the conclusions
学生:这证实了真理 following the premises, that's the important thing.
教授:我们没有谈到知识 Maryann always wear jeans on Friday. You can still say that…
知识中的哲学不在课程当中 And it's because what makes an argument good is the conclusion
回来看我说的 follows from the premises. And youve got to distinguish
你们都理解前提真理和 the goodness of an argument by the truth of the premises.
结论真理的区别 这是很重要的 Just because truth is a good thing and validity is a good thing
因为使论点成为好论点的就是紧随前提的结论 doesnt mean it's the same thing. Thats an important thing.
你们要通过前提的真理区别 We mustnt take validity as an general pro word.
论点好在哪里 And in the same way truth isn't a general pro word.
因为真理是好的 有效性是好的 Okay lets have a look at these arguments, one of them is good
不意味着相同的东西 这是很重要的 and one of them is bad. don't call out.
我们不能把有效性当做通常的支持 Have a look and decided among yourselves
同样 真理也不是 which is the good one and which is the bad one.
我们来看看这些论点 Who's decided? All right a little more time.
其中一个是好的 一个是不好的 别说出来 Okay who's decided. Is that a good argument?
看看然后选择 Student: Yes
哪个是好的 哪个是不好的 Prof: Is that a good argument?
谁选好了?可能还要一点时间 Student: No
好 谁选好了 这是个好论点吗? Prof: Well done you don't need to come to this class at all.
学生:是的 You're absolutely right. This is a deductive argument that gives
教授:那是个好论点吗? absolute certainty in the following sense. If these premises:
学生:不是 if it is Monday the lecture will finish at 3: 30 it is Monday so
教授:很好 你们不需要来上这门课 the lecture will finish at 3: 30. If the premises are both true
你们很对 这是一个演绎论点 then this conclusion would have to be true. It couldnt be
给予完全的肯定 如果这些前提: false if those two premises are both true. So the truth of
如果今天是星期一 讲座将在3:30结束 the premises are preserved in the truth of the conclusion there.
今天是星期一 讲座将在3:30结束 如果这些前提都是真的 You couldnt have the two premises true and that conclusion not.
那么结论应该也是真的 So if you believe those two premises, rationally speaking
如果这两个前提都是真的 它不可能是假的 you must believe the conclusion. Thats what it is to be
前提保存了结论的真理 a rational animal. And instantly I say you are wasting your
两个前提不同时为真的话 结论也不为真 time coming to the lecture if you knew that of course that's
如果你相信这两个前提 理性地说 nonsense because you're all rational animals you have to be
你必须相信结论 这就是理性的动物 rational animals or you wouldnt be here because you saw that,
我立刻说 如果你知道这门课 whatever you saw that, that sound interesting, I would
你在浪费时间来这堂课 like to go to that lecture the lecture starts 2 o'clock Monday
这是废话 因为你们都是理性动物 or whatever day that is. Therefore I would go to that lecture.
你们有理性动物或者你不会在这里因为你看到 Did you not? And those are reasons. We are talking
不管看到什么 听起来都很有趣 theoretical arguments here but arguments are the most
我想去星期一两点的讲座 practical thing in the world. Your bases of practical reasoning
或者随便哪一天 所以我去那个讲座 led you here. Each one of you are rational what we are doing
不是吗?这些是理由 here is learning how to explicate our capacity for reasons.
我们在谈论理论上的论点 但是 You know whether the conclusion follows the premises or not.
论点是世界上实际的东西 你们实际推理的基础 Thats why when you argument in the pub with your sons
让你们来到了这里 你们都是理性的 daughter or wives or whoever, you know what you are
在这里做的就是学习怎样提高你们理性的能力 hearing is a good argument or not. You say there's something
你知道结论是否顺从结论 wrong with that argument as you read the news paper hear
这就是为什么当你在酒吧里和你孩子 in your personal television or something like that.
或者妻子的论点 你知道 Something wrong with that argument, your intuitions,
你听到的是否是一个好论点 你说 your rational intuitions are telling you what you need to know
论点中的有些东西不对 but what you do in these classes is learning
当你读论文的时候听见个人的电视之类的 how to make explicit intuitions.
你的论点 直觉和理性的直觉就有毛病了 What your intuitions are telling you. So your intuitions
告诉你你需要知道什么 are telling you that's a good one and that's a bad one.
但是你在这些课上做的是学习 Whats wrong with this one?
怎样做出明晰的直觉 Student: INAUDIBLE
你的直觉告诉你的 Prof: Everything I heard is good, the fact is, let me ask you
所以你的直觉告诉你什么是好的什么是不好的 a question, could be the case that these premises are
这个有什么毛病? true and yet this conclusion is false?
学生:(声音太小) Students: Yes.
教授:我听到的都是好的事实是 Prof: Okay. Anyone give me a counter example to this argument.
让我来问个问题 这些前提可能 I'll read them out again for the people who can't hear.
都是对的结论是错的嘛? If it's Monday the lecture will finish at 3:30, the lecture
学生:对 will finish at 3:30, therefore it's Monday. Can anyone give me
教授:好 谁可以给我举一个反例 a counter example to that argument? a situation where both
我在读一遍 以免有人没听见 those premises are true but that conclusion is false.
如果今天是星期一 讲座将在3:30结束 A situation where both those premises are true
因为讲座将在3:30结束 所以今天是周一 and that conclusion is false.
谁能给我举一个反例? Student: It is Tuesday, and the Lecture finished are 3:30.
两个前提都为真但是结论是假的 Prof: Good, well done. Or Wednesday Thursday or Friday.
这种情况下 两个前提都为真 Exactly. Well this says if it's Monday, the Lecture
但结论是假的 will finish at 3:30. This merely says the lecture
学生:今天是星期二 讲座将在3:30结束 will finish at 3:30. It could be Monday but it might not be.
教授:好 或者星期三星期四星期五 So there is a situation where both these premises
很好 这里说如果今天是周一 are true and the conclusion is false therefore
讲座将会在3:30结束 这只是说 this is a bad argument. It's an invalid argument,
讲座将会在3:30结束 可能是星期一 但不一定是 it's actually an instant of the fallacy of affirming the consequent.
所以有这种情况 You see the sentences look very similar but
前提都为真 结论是假的 of course they are not because this one is taking the antecedent
所以这是一个不好的论点 这是一个无效的论点 as the second premise and this one is taking the consequence
这实际上是连续的确认结论的谬误 as the second premise.
你们明白句子看起来非常像 And we will learning more about fallacies
但是他们不是 因为这个有先行词 later on in the course. But that's it for today, next week
作为第二个前提 这个用结论 we will be looking at all the different sorts of arguments
作为第二个前提 there are and how to distinguish them from each other.
我们将会在剩下的课里学到更多关于谬误的东西 And then we are going to get on to learning how to set them out
但是今天就这样了 properly and how to evaluate them.
下周我们将会研究不同种类的论点 Okay now we got a quarter of an hour for questions.
怎样区分他们 Student: INAUDIBLE
然后我们将会学习 Prof: no. Thats easy. You can try with Hazel,
怎样建立并且评价他们 she might be able to tell you. But I doubt it.
好 我们有一刻钟的时间作为问答环节 Student: Whos this Barkley who thought that chair was only a concept,
学生:(声音太小) and what did he sit on.
教授:不 这很简单 你可以看看Hazel Prof: He didnt think the chair was only a concept.
她可能能告诉你 但是我不确定 It was Bishop Barkley, George Barkley who lived, I don't know,
学生:谁是那个认为椅子只是 he believed that there are only reasons that beliefs exist
一个概念和他坐在上面的Barkley? because we can either see it now or we could see it under
教授:他没有认为椅子只是一个概念 some of the circumstances. If I claim, okay what makes it true
那是教父Barkley 健在的George Barkley 我不知道 that this lecture stand exist? Because we can see it, hear it,
他认为有唯一的理由和信仰存在 we can touch it, all sorts of things. What's more
因为我们能看到或者 we also believe were we to come back tonight, midnight,
在某些环境下看到 如果我宣称 and nobody moved it and all other things were equal it would
使其为真的是这个讲座存在?因为我们能看到它 听到它 still be here. So there we have an appeal to actual perceptions.
感觉到它等等 Okay so we can see it now, and we have an appeal to
而且我们也认为我们今天晚上会回去 counter factual perceptions:
没人移动它 其他事情都是一样的 If we have at 12 o'clock we would be able to see it.
它仍然会在这 我们有一个对真实概念的向往 Barkley says that, if you give me a reason for thinking
好 我们能看到它 并且 that anything exists that doesn't depend on actual
有对反现实认知的向往 or counter conceptual perceptions sorry let me repeat that,
如果现在12点整 我们能看见它 you will not give me a reason for thinking that
Barkley说 如果你给我一个思考 anything exists that doesnt appeal to one of the other of
任何事物都存在的理由 这不取决于实际或者 those two, so therefore if something is unperceivable,
或者反概念的认知 我再重复一遍 then you have no reason to believe that it exists.
你们不会给我一个思考 Students: Are there any concepts?
任何事物都存在的理由 这并不是对任意一者的向往 Prof: Well we experience concepts all the time
所以如果有些事情不可知 don't we?
你没有理由相信它存在 Student: Do they exist?
学生:有什么概念吗? Prof: We will a concept is a constituent of a thought.
教授:好 我们的经验概念 So as long as you think you think and you will think
不是吗? in concepts so there your reasons if concepts exist.
学生:他们存在吗? Student: Is that the same thing as saying some for
教授:我们会有一个连续思考的概念 tree collapsing in the middle of some forest somewhere and
只要你思考并且将来也会在概念中思考 you’ll see why I'm saying this in a moment.
这就是你相信思考存在的理由 nobody hearing it.
学生:这就像是说 Prof: Yes, the fact is if you were in the forest
森林中的树倒了 you would hear it.
没人听见一样吗? Student: Yes and the experience is that if you happen to be
教授:是的 实际上如果你 Prof: No, your reason for noise to exist is that you would
在森林中你会听见 hear if you were there. So that's a counter factual perception
学生:是的 经验就是 that you were going at. Barkley he is very important,
你恰巧在那并且听到了声响 he is a fascinating philosopher actually.
教授:不 你对于声响存在 He thinks physical objects are made up of ideas of ours,
如果在那就能听见的理由 有一个反实际的认知 he was one of the fist idealists. He doesnt mean that
你们将会看到 Barkley非常重要 there you would hear the noise…
他是一个很出色的哲学家 we can put our hands through this because it is an idea.
他认为物体是由我们的观念组成的 He means that my idea of this lecture is an idea made up of
他是一个核心观念主义者 partly of solidity. The idea that if I do that I won't be able to
他不是说我们可以因为这一个观念 我们的手就能穿过其中 push any further. And that is a perception notice.
他是说我关于这堂课的观念 And Thats a perception. it's a bundle of perceptions.
是由一些坚实的物体组成的观念 这种观念我不能在深入了 Student: can you say as well that we have second order of
这种认知的提示 accounts to everything because what we see is actually
这是种认知 有很多 our reaction to the brain. It's something that translated in
学生:你能说我们有 Prof: I don't think we sense data perhaps. So we never
第二种对一切事物的顺序 因为我们看到的 see the object directly, we see the data and
实际上是对大脑的反应 这些都是 Student: Yes. It's kind of like a dark it's something
用一种特殊方式翻译的 that's being played in a screen.
教授:我不认为我们感觉到资料 Prof: There's two way of thinking about sense data.
所以我们永远不能直接看到物体 One way is very old fashioned. We don't think about it that way
学生:是的 这是种类似于暗的东西 anymore. Thats the way Russel and Vikinshire and
这是在屏幕上播放的东西 people of that thought of it, which is that we never see
教授:有两种方式来思考感觉资料 the thing itself, we only see an idea in our mind. And why would
一种是很过时的 我们不用这种方法了 think that's an answer, because you can never be sure, I mean
那就是Russel和Vikinshire用的 are you really sure that I am here, I mean your reasons for
人们思考的方式 believing I am here is for you seeing me sound but could it
我们看不到事物本身 只能在脑中看到观念 be with you that there it is now not to be true that I am here.
为什么那是个答案 因为你不能确定 Wouldnt you say no?
我是说你很确定我在这 Student: no I said no
我是说你对于相信我在这里你能看见我的理由 Prof: Oh I am sorry. You said no.
这可能和你在一起 现在我在这不可能是真的 Student: I did
你难道不会说不么? Prof: So you don't think you could have an experience
学生:不 我说不 of me doing what I've been doing and yet I am not yet.
教授:哦 抱歉 你说不 You'll have one of those tonight.
学生:是的 Student: Dreaming
教授:如果你不认为你能有我的经历 Prof: Dreaming would be one. Here is a another,
我现在在做的和没有做的 what would you think, when you're have perceptions as of me and
你们今天晚上会看到 whats causing those perceptions is me. And what's more
学生:做梦 your perceptions are guides to what I am like.
教授:做梦是其中之一 还有另外一个 Look, if we talk about the causal relations. Think A causes B
你认为 当你有像我一样 we have to know of both A and B. We have to see
和引发那些认知的认知 if they join or correlate or something like that.
而且 你的认知导向我像的 So we got to be standing here to see if A and B are correlated.
看 如果我们谈论因果关系 A引发B But if you think B is a chair and A is your idea of a chair
我们要知道A和B 我们要知道 and you can't get outside your ideas.
如果他们结合或者互相关联等等 And here is where you stand is respect to your perceptions
我们要站在这看如果A和B是否相关联 isn't it? how can you get outside of your perceptions to see
但是如果你认为B是一把椅子A是你关于椅子的观点 what causes them? You see what I mean?
你不能跳出这些观念 Student: INAUDIBLE
你站的地方是对你认知的反应 Prof: yes but were not talking about dreams now
你怎么能跳出自己的认知来 Student: INAUDIBLE
知道什么引发了他们吗? 明白吗? Prof: Let me ask the question again: if we are talking about
学生:(声音太小) the idea of a chair, ideas of a chair, the concept of the chair
教授:是的 但是说到现在的梦 and so on, can you get outside of your idea of a chair in order
学生:(声音太小) to see that it was caused by a chair? Now if you can be with
教授:我再问你们一个问题:如果我们谈到 me exactly as it is with me. I am touching the chair rocking
一个椅子的观念 椅子的概念 the chair moving the chairs. And yet it is possible I might
你们能跳出自己关于椅子的观念 be asleep. And that will be mean there are no chairs here.
进而明白他是由椅子引发的吗? Even if I was sleep I might have said something like I must
如果你们跟不上我 就像跟上我一样 have experience as chair in order to be able to do this.
我摸摸椅子 晃晃椅子 可能我会睡着 I can say why should I have said this that is causing
这意味着没有椅子了 my perceptions. All I have got is my perceptions. I can't
即使我睡着了我可能会说 get out of my perceptions to adopt this perspective can I?
我必须有椅子的经历来做这些之类的话 Student; Are you saying you can create your idea of a chair
我会说为什么我应该说这些 without actually seeing it?
引发我认知的话 这些都是我的认知 Prof: maybe not me but maybe an evil demon. What you
我不能跳出我的认知来接受这个认知 hear is a thought experiment. The idea here is if you push
学生:你不是说你能不真实地看到椅子 what you know to the final degree what you will see is
而创造一个椅子的观念吗? actually what you believe in the physical universe is
教授:可能不是我但可能是妖魔鬼怪 outside yourself and that includes your body because you assume
你听到的是一个思想实验 这个观念 your perception of your self is caused by something
如果你把你知道的推到终点 outside yourself. Outside your mind. You mind is a good guide to
你会明白你相信的宇宙 the nature these things.
是在你自身之外的 同时包含了你自己 If you question both sides of
因为你假定你对自己的认知是有自身之外的东西引发的 the perception you are left with nothing because what makes you
思维之外的 你的思维是一个 think that there is something outside that causes
指引这些东西本质的很好的向导 your perceptions. If all you can see is the perceptions themselves
如果你对认知的两方面有疑问 rather than the casual relations between your perceptions and
那你就一无所剩了 what is causing them. We are getting a bit away from
因为让你拿像样的是在引发你认知之外的 critical reasoning here.
如果你们都能知道认知自身 Student: Reactions and your attempts to control reactions.
而不是你认知之间的因果关系 what the object wants to do, you have no control of that
和引发他们的东西 我们有点 object because it's outside of you.
远离了批判性思维 Prof: We are all talking of one experience after another.
学生:反应和你试图控制反应 Aren't you? There are some perceptions in mind that will obey
哪些是想做的 你不能控制 my will and there are other perceptions that don't; that chair
因为他们在你之外 doesn't obey my will, that bad particular perception doesn't
教授:我们都在一件接一件地谈经历 obey my will, others do. I think I have introduced
不是吗?有一些认知会 the Cartesian thought experiment with too little time.
服从我的意愿 其他的可能不会 You can go away and read the first meditation.
那把椅子不服从我的意愿 It's very easy to read. It doesn't take much longer to read than.
其他的会 我想我用来介绍 Whether the person is making it…Thats an interesting one,
笛卡尔学派思想实验的时间太少了 Student: So who introduced this?
你们可以去读读第一部沉思录 Prof: Barkley. The Cartesian thought experiment completely
很简单 也不会花很长时间 revolutionized philosophy. It revolutionized our beliefs
学生:谁介绍的? that we could claim to have knowledge. Barkley attempted to
教授:Barkley 笛卡尔学派的思想实验 get over that because if we.. okay Here's the world. Here's
对哲学进行了完全的革命 他革新了我们的信仰 our mind and here's the evil demon. If Descartes shows this is
所以我们能够宣称有知识 the place and this is whatever this is like. You need to say
Barkley试图去摆脱 好这里是世界 something about our knowledge about the world.
这里是我们的思想 这里是妖魔鬼怪 如果笛卡尔 What Barkley is doing is he is remaking the world with our mind.
说这是一个不管像什么的地方 So if there is nothing more to physical object than just a set of
你们需要说一说我们关于世界的知识 perceptions, and if the only thing we can have knowledge is
Barkley做的是他用我们的思想把世界重塑了 our perceptions then there is no reason why we can't
如果没有比一组认知更多的物体 have knowledge about physical objects- if they are perceptions.
如果我们的知识只有认知 So Barkely was trying to show that we do have knowledge
那我们就没有理由 despite the Cartesian thought experiment. Anyway,
拥有对物体的知识 如果这些是认知的话 come to another set of lectures. I see there is time for
Barkely试图展示我们有知识 one more question if there is anyone who would want
除了笛卡尔学派的思想实验 不管怎么说 Student: INAUDIBLE
没有理由 如果你想知道更多 Prof: No, well they are all good or they wouldn't be
那就来听另一节课吧 我看时间还够回答 on the reading list. A short introduction to logic is
一个问题 如果有人想 very interesting and very easy to read and short.
学生:(声音太小) The pocket book in the leaflet, if you look outside you will
教授:不 他们都很好或者他们不会 find the leaflet and see the reading list..
在阅读列表上 对逻辑简短的介绍 Student: where can I get this book?
是非常有意思的 阅读也是很简单的 时间也过得很快 Prof: You can get it in Amazon, the reading is
那本口袋书在宣传册里 如果你们出去 a bit irritating but it's a good little book.
会看到宣传册里面的阅读列表 If you can't find it on Amazon let me know.
学生:从哪能买到这本书? Student: You can't let me know.
教授:亚马逊上就有 Prof: It's on the reading list. Okay we will stop there.
这个阅读可能有点烦人 但是这本小书还是不错的 Thank you for coming. I will see you next week.
如果你们在亚马逊上找不到 就来找我吧 So that “it's snowing” implies the mail will be late
学生:你不能使我明白 “Turn the heat up!”
教授:这在阅读列表上 我们今天就到这了 “Therefore it is snowing, the mail will be late”
谢谢大家 下周再见 looks very like arguments. “If it is snowing the mail will be late”